Health FactorsCopy Link

Whole food is medicine, and exercise an elixir—both vital and potent.
Together, they nourish humanity and enable us to flourish.

Some factors that affect our mental and physical states, along with longevity, are:

• Hydration
• Food (energy, nutrient density, satiety)
• Exercise
• Hormones (testosterone, estrogen, insulin, irisin, adrenaline, etc.)
• Stress and Mental Health
• Sleep and rest
• Gut microbiome
• Allergies, intolerances, and inflammation
• Heat and cold exposure
• Fasting
• Injuries, soreness, or illness
• Addiction
• Genetics

Tip

Focus on prevention over treatment.

Lifestyle

Poor eating choices and a sedentary lifestyle are associated with higher body fat, physical ailments, mental illness, and higher death rates. Underweight individuals also have a high mortality rate. Good eating choices and fitness are associated with longevity, leanness, and mental wellness.

Maintaining a healthy diet is not meant to be temporary and should always be part of a lifestyle. Sticking to a healthy diet for life will give you long-term mental and physical benefits.

Longevity

The keys to a long life are good eating choices, intermittent fasting, sleep, and exercise, since they decrease inflammation. Inflammation is linked to cancer and a shorter lifespan. Vices such as smoking and excessive consumption of alcohol also shorten lifespan.

Did you know?

Italy has one of the greatest proportion of centenarians (age 100 or older) in the world. In addition to the Mediterranean diet and an active lifestyle, other factors that contribute to their longevity include close family and communities – natural keys to ward off depression.

To reach the full human capacity of the longest possible life, we can look to our own cells. It was found that telomeres, a protective cap located at the end of DNA chromosomes that get shorter with each cell division, are associated with accelerated aging. Shorter telomeres have been associated with increased risk of age-related diseases, one of the hallmarks of aging.

Exercise, including resistance training and aerobic training, is the best way to maintain and even lengthen telomeres. High-intensity interval training (HIIT) exercise was even better.

To slow down the rate of telomere fraying and to prevent a shortened lifespan, key dietary factors include:

• Fibre, which are rich in vegetables, whole grains, legumes, and in certain fruits and berries.
• Selenium, which are abundant in seafood, meats, eggs, and cottage cheese.
• Zinc, which is commonly found in red meat and poultry.
• Magnesium, which is commonly found in cocoa, nuts, seeds, legumes, and whole grains.
• Omega-3 fatty acids are typically more abundant in fish/seafood and certain plant sources like walnuts and flaxseeds.
• Antioxidants in some vegetables and spices, as well as balsamic vinegar and cocoa.

Longevity Factors

Longevity is influenced by a variety of interconnected factors that contribute to overall health and well-being. Understanding these factors can help you make informed decisions about your lifestyle to promote a longer, healthier life.

Primary Longevity Factors

Diet and exercise play crucial roles in influencing these primary factors. A balanced diet helps manage weight, supports heart health, and maintains metabolic function, while regular exercise builds muscle, enhances cardiovascular health, and boosts metabolism.

⏳ Longevity Factor	🍎 Diet	💪 Exercise
🥦 Weight Management	➕➕➕➕➕	➕➕➕
⚖️ Obesity Prevention	➕➕➕➕➕	➕➕➕➕➕
🏃‍♂️ Cardiovascular Health	➕➕➕➕	➕➕➕➕➕
🏋️‍♀️ Muscle Maintenance	➕➕	➕➕➕➕➕
📈 Metabolic Health	➕➕➕	➕➕➕➕➕
➕ Minimal positive impact ➕➕ Slight positive impact ➕➕➕ Moderate positive impact ➕➕➕➕ Strong positive impact ➕➕➕➕➕ Very strong positive impact

Additional Longevity Factors

Other important aspects of longevity are influenced not only by diet and exercise but also by lifestyle choices and environmental factors. Quality sleep and effective stress management are essential for physical and mental health. Strong social connections and regular health check-ups contribute to long-term well-being, while avoiding harmful substances like tobacco and excessive alcohol can significantly extend life expectancy.

Other Factors: Includes influences such as sleep quality, stress management, social connections, avoiding harmful substances, regular medical check-ups, mental health support, and genetics.

⏳ Longevity Factor	🍎 Diet Influence	💪 Exercise Influence	Other Factors 😴🧘‍♀️👫💊🩺🧠
😴 Sleep Quality	➕➕	➕➕	➕➕➕➕
🧘‍♀️ Stress Management	➕➕	➕➕➕	➕➕➕➕
👫 Social Connections	➕	➕➕	➕➕➕➕
💊 Avoiding Harmful Substances	➕➕	➕➕	➕➕➕➕➕
🩺 Regular Medical Check-Ups	➕➕	➕	➕➕➕➕
🧠 Mental Health	➕➕➕	➕➕➕	➕➕➕➕
🧬 Genetics	N/A	N/A	➕➕➕➕➕
➕ Minimal positive impact ➕➕ Slight positive impact ➕➕➕ Moderate positive impact ➕➕➕➕ Strong positive impact ➕➕➕➕➕ Very strong positive impact

The best bridge between despair and hope is a good night's sleep. E. Joseph Cossman

Obesity

While environment, genetics, metabolism, and hormones are important factors in obesity, obesity is a consequence of lifestyle factors, including food choices and physical activity levels.

In the early 1900s, obesity was very rare. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 2.5 billion adults worldwide were overweight, with over 890 million of these being obese. This represents 43% of the world's adult population being overweight or obese. 37 million children under the age of 5 were overweight. This alarming statistic is growing.

Being overweight is not being healthy because it is a state of chronic low-grade inflammation, leading to reduced immunity and increased susceptibility to diseases. Obesity is associated with all-cause mortality. Even though obesity is largely a modern phenomenon, Ancient Greek physicians noted that excess fat caused more sudden death in people, and caused infrequent periods and infertility in women.

Being obese puts you at greater risk for heart disease and other chronic diseases.

You have power over your mind – not outside events. Realize this, and you will find strength. Marcus Aurelius (121–180 AD), Meditations

Assessing HealthCopy Link

Beyond body composition and fitness level, appearances can be deceiving. You might look in great shape, but there could be underlying health issues. You could be prediabetic due to stress and lack of sleep, rather than diet alone. Insufficient hydration might lead to low eGFR levels, indicating potential kidney problems.

Recommendation

See your doctor or health care provider regularly for comprehensive health evaluations.

Below are the optimal markers of health and fitness for individuals without risk factors:

• Body fat: While no universal standard exists, epidemiological data suggests ideal ranges of 7–19% for men and 15–27% for women. The lower range is ideal for young adults, while the upper range is more appropriate for older individuals.
• Exercise: According to the World Health Organization, engage in vigorous-intensity exercise at least three times a week for a minimum of 20 minutes, or moderate-intensity exercise at least five times a week for a minimum of 30 minutes. Refer to the heart rate zones for targeted training.
• Blood pressure: Ideally between 90/60 and 120/80 mm Hg.
• LDL ("bad") cholesterol: For individuals with no heart disease risk, 100–129 mg/dL (2.6–3.3 mmol/L) is ideal.
• HDL ("good") cholesterol: 60 mg/dL (1.6 mmol/L) and higher is ideal.
• Triglycerides: Under 150 mg/dL (1.7 mmol/L) is ideal.
• Resting Heart Rate: Typically between 60 and 100 beats per minute for adults. Lower rates may indicate better cardiovascular fitness.
• Blood Glucose Levels: Fasting blood glucose levels should be below 100 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/L) and haemoglobin A1c less than 5.7%.
• Inflammation Markers: C-reactive protein (CRP) levels can indicate the presence of inflammation, with lower levels (less than 1.0 mg/L) being preferable.
• Bowel Movements: Smooth, soft, and easy to pass, resembling a sausage or snake.

By regularly assessing these markers, you can get a comprehensive view of your health and take proactive steps to maintain or improve it.

Note

Total cholesterol is actually calculated as HDL + LDL + 1/5 of the triglycerides, rather than the sum of these values.

Learning about your own biometrics and biomarkers is vital for personal health management, optimizing fitness, advancing medical research, and improving public health. By understanding these indicators, individuals can make informed decisions about their health and well-being.

Biomarkers

Biomarkers can help in the early detection of diseases, often before symptoms appear. For instance, elevated blood glucose levels can indicate prediabetes or diabetes, allowing for early intervention and management. Genetic biomarkers can reveal predispositions to certain conditions, enabling preventive measures.

Assessing Nutritional Needs

Biomarkers such as vitamin and mineral levels can help in assessing nutritional status and adjusting dietary intake to meet individual nutritional requirements, thereby supporting overall health and fitness.

Getting Your Biomarker Results

Request a lab blood test through your doctor, health service provider, or personalized health analytics service. Genetic testing is another option. A continuous glucose monitor (CGM) is used for blood glucose monitoring.

Biomarkers for Optimal Health

Biometrics

Biometrics such as heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature are essential for monitoring ongoing health and detecting changes that might indicate health issues. Regular monitoring helps in managing chronic conditions effectively. For example, tracking cholesterol levels can help manage the risk of cardiovascular diseases.

Optimizing Physical Training

Biometric data, such as heart rate variability and oxygen saturation, can help optimize training programs by tailoring intensity and recovery periods to individual needs. This enhances athletic performance while reducing the risk of injury or overtraining.

Getting Your Biometric Results

Wearable devices such as a Garmin device, Apple Watch, FitBit, Whoop, Oura Ring, etc. can measure most biometrics.

Recommended Biometric Device

For the best value, convenience, and quality, I recommend the RingConn smart ring. With a long battery life and comprehensive tracking of sleep, stress, activity, and detailed biometrics (HRV, SpO2, skin temperature, etc.), it's a powerful tool in a compact form. It's the device I personally use.

Biometrics for Optimal Health

Biological Age

The year of your birth marks the beginning of your chronological age. However, your age doesn't necessarily reflect your health or vitality.

Biological age, on the other hand, provides a more accurate representation of an individual's physiological condition. It is an estimate of the age at which one's body is functioning, based on various biomarkers and biometrics. These indicators reveal the state of one's health on a cellular level and include metrics such as blood pressure, cholesterol levels, blood glucose levels, and waist-to-height ratio. These metrics look at cardiovascular health, diabetes risk, heart health, and obesity-related health risks, all markers of aging.

Maintaining a youthful biological age involves strategies that support cellular preservation and repair. These strategies include:

• Nutrition: A diet rich in whole foods, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory ingredients supports cellular health and reduces oxidative stress.
• Exercise: Regular physical activity enhances cardiovascular function, muscle strength, and metabolic health.
• Sleep: Quality sleep is essential for cellular repair and overall health. It aids in memory consolidation, hormone regulation, and immune function.
• Fasting: Intermittent fasting and the fasting-mimicking diet has been shown to promote cellular repair processes, reduce inflammation, and improve metabolic health.

The below calculator gives an estimate of your biological age against your chronological age, based on your current biomarkers and biometrics.

SSF Biological Age Calculator Experimental

Age

Blood Pressure

Systolic (mmHg)
Diastolic (mmHg)

Blood Glucose

Hemoglobin A1c (%)

Lipid Profile (mg/dL or mmol/L)

HDL Cholesterol
Triglycerides

Body Measurements (WC/HT)

🇺🇸 Imperial 🇪🇺 Metric

Waist Circumference

inches

Height

feet inches

Waist Circumference

cm

Height

cm

Get Result

Biological Age

Years

Stress and Mental HealthCopy Link

Stress Management

If sleep is crucial for good health, then stress management is just as crucial for overall health and longevity.

Poor Sleep: Poor sleep elevates a stress hormone called coritsol, which can lead to increased food cravings and poor dietary choices.

Chronic Stress: Chronic stress exacerbates existing health issues such as obesity, depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances, heart disease, and even independently of obesity, type 2 diabetes. It also accelerates aging and can lead to premature death. Stress also alters the gut microbiome.

Acute (Intermittent) Stress: However, not all stress is detrimental. Positive acute stress, like that from intense workouts, promotes muscle strengthening and growth. This is an example of hormesis, the idea that low levels of stress can stimulate beneficial adaptive responses in the body. In the case of exercise, the stress triggers repair processes that enhance cell function and overall health. However, it is important to note that this benefit is dose-dependent.

Eustress vs. Distress: Eustress is a positive type of stress that boosts performance, motivation, and well-being. It comes from challenges that feel achievable and rewarding, like pursuing a passion or training for a race. Without eustress, low-stress situations can lead to boredom and stagnation—often precursors to depression. In contrast, distress is a negative type of stress that causes anxiety, frustration, and helplessness, such as losing a job or feeling overwhelmed.

Relationships: We are social creatures, and our mental health is closely tied to our sense of belonging within groups. Social isolation and loneliness can heighten stress and depression, making social relationships and community ties essential.

Reducing Stress: Exercise is one of the most effective natural methods for reducing chronic stress, as well as alleviating depression and anxiety. As Juvenal (55–138 AD) aptly stated, "A sound mind in a healthy body." Breathwork, particularly coherence (resonance) breathing, is similarly effective at reducing these conditions while also harmonizing breathing with the nervous system and optimizing heart rate variability (HRV).

Other Methods: Additionally, mindfulness meditation is a highly effective method for reducing stress and enhancing overall well-being. Journaling can also be beneficial, particularly for alleviating anxiety-related sleep issues. Hydrotheraphy can also help reduce stress but may not have as strong an impact as exercise, breathwork, sleep, social support, or meditation.

Stress and Heart Rate

When you experience stress, your body activates the sympathetic nervous system (the “fight or flight” response), increasing your heart rate to prepare for perceived threats.

Heart Rate Variability (HRV)

Stress: Stress can be measured through heart rate variability (HRV), measured in milliseconds, which is the variation in time intervals between successive heartbeats. HRV reflects the balance between the sympathetic (speeds up the heart rate) and parasympathetic (slows down the heart rate) nervous systems.

High HRV: High HRV indicates a healthy, responsive autonomic nervous system, associated with lower stress levels and better cardiovascular health. It shows the body's ability to adapt to stress efficiently.

Low HRV: Conversely, low HRV suggests a dominance of the sympathetic nervous system ("fight or flight"), often due to stress, poor sleep quality, or overtraining, indicating less resilience to stress. Poor nutrition and hydration can also negatively affect HRV.

To improve your HRV, incorporate into your lifestyle:

1. Coherent breathing
2. Regular exercise
3. Mindfulness meditation
4. Sleep optimization
5. Cold exposure
6. The Mediterranean Diet

Tip

Biometric wearable devices can track your HRV, providing insights into your stress levels and overall health.

Heart Rate Variability Table

Age Range	Low (ms)	Below Average (ms)	Average (ms)	Above Average (ms)
20–29	< 55	55–65	66–80	> 80
30–39	< 50	50–60	61–75	> 75
40–49	< 45	45–55	56–70	> 70
50–59	< 40	40–50	51–65	> 65
60+	< 35	35–45	46–60	> 60

• Low HRV: Typically indicates higher stress levels or less adaptability to stress.
• Below Average HRV: May suggest the need for improved cardiovascular health or stress management.
• Average HRV: Indicates normal cardiovascular health and stress resilience for the age group.
• Above Average HRV: Reflects better-than-average cardiovascular health and adaptability to stress.

Motivation

On Exercise: For some, exercising may feel like a chore. It is important to view exercise as an enjoyable experience and part of your goals for mental health, confidence, appearance, performance, and overall well-being. Make exercise necessary (e.g. the activity of cooking) or rewarding (e.g. a delicious meal).

Outcome-Dependent: Results make a great motivator. Methods such as taking before-and-after photos, recording body measurements, tracking weight changes, and monitoring strength improvements will allow you to see observable results. However, the hidden danger is linking self-worth to image or results.

Your Environment: A healthy environment and strong support systems are critical for continued progress, which is actually separate from motivation. Podcasts, books, audiobooks, and message forums are some ways to keep socially engaged. Your family should support you in your fitness goals. Having a workout partner can be motivational while keeping each other accountable with some friendly competition.

The Pitfalls of Motivation: However, motivation is illusory and fleeting. Motivation would be in control, not you. It's an external stimuli that gives a small dopamine hit, whether it is coming from music, sound bites, or images. It arises from emotions, identity, and comparison. More often than not, reliance on motivation doesn't work for the long term. This is where discipline comes in.

Author's Anecdote

I used to exercise—strength training, cycling, and trail running—while listening to music. I stopped because I found it more powerful to focus solely on the exercise itself without distraction: the perfect form of a lift, the rhythmic cadence of pedaling, the diaphragmatic breathing in tune with my steps. They all bring awareness to the self, which in turn brings about a flow state that often unlocks in the mind creativity and problem-solving.

Disclipline

Discipline > Motivation: What matters more than motivation is discipline. Disclipline is simply doing something without requiring external positive reinforcement (i.e., motivation). Think of Nike's slogan, "Just do it." However, you can't "just do it" without first giving up desire and attachment to outcomes. Meditation helps with that, by bringing self-awareness to the forefront in the quest for self-actualization.

The difference between motivation and discipline is that with discipline, even if you're having a bad day at work or feeling lethargic after a cheat meal, you're still going to exercise. You've set aside the urge to stay at home and relax by taking action because deep down inside, you know exercise will help more by addressing stress and overindulgence than by being sedentary.

This first requires acknowledgement that we are swayed by emotions and that it takes time to develop discipline. We need to understand the relationship between habit and emotion.

Long-Term Success: Strong discipline is a better indicator of long-term success because much of fitness and lifestyle successes depends on consistency.

For example, once you are consistent with diet and exercise for three months, it becomes part of your routine (habit) and lifestyle. If you miss a workout day or have a cheat meal, don't worry too much about it as long you're able to be as consistent as possible each day.

Discipline, willpower, and habit are all internal influences of your own behaviour.

Find a Balance: However, discipline requires cognitive effort, which can be taxing, especially before it becomes a habit. Therefore, always balance effort with restorative activities and quality sleep.

Minds, like bodies, will often fall into a pimpled, ill-conditioned state from mere excess of comfort. Charles Dickens, Barnaby Rudge

We must all suffer one of two things: the pain of discipline or the pain of regret. Jim Rohn

Discipline is doing something regardless of how you feel about it.

Breathwork and MeditationCopy Link

Deep Breathing

Tip

Inhale by expanding your belly, not your chest. This engages the diaphragm muscle and promotes proper, natural breathing. While at rest, breathe through your nostrils and minimize mouth breathing whenever possible.

Stress Reduction: Deep breathing is an immediate and effective way to reduce stress and promote relaxation. It engages the body's physiological systems and psychological processes by activating the parasympathetic nervous system, improving oxygenation, and fostering mindfulness, making it a powerful tool for enhancing overall well-being.

Vagus Nerve Activation: Deep breathing stimulates the vagus nerve, which activates the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). The PNS promotes the "rest and digest" response, counteracting the "fight or flight" response of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). This helps improve heart rate variability (HRV), reduce heart rate, lower blood pressure, and promote a state of calm.

In addition, deep breathing:

• Reduces cortisol, the primary stress hormone
• Increases oxygen intake
• Releases endorphins
• Reduces anxiety
• Promotes mental clarity
• Sense of agency over one's physiological state

Basic Breathing Exercise: To practice basic deep breathing, keep your spine upright, take a few deep breaths through your nose, filling your diaphragm (expanding your belly) over ~4 seconds. Hold briefly, then exhale slowly (~6 seconds) ideally through your nose. Start with at least 5 minutes a day and, if possible, work up to 20 minutes daily for optimal benefits. This can be done any time.

Avoid Short Breaths at Rest: At a state of rest, avoid short breaths into your chest (1–2 seconds), as this can activate the body's symphathetic ("fight-or-flight") response. This does not apply to exercise.

Coherent Breathing vs. Box Breathing: Both coherent and box breathing are effective, but they serve slightly different purposes and have unique benefits. Coherent breathing provides calm and balance for ongoing stress management while box breathing provides immediate focus and anxiety relief.

Coherent Breathing

Coherent breathing, also known as resonance breathing, involves a continuous rhythm, typically inhaling for 5–6 seconds and exhaling for 5–6 seconds without a pause. This smooth, unbroken cycle creates a steady heart rate pattern that:

• Optimizes autonomic nervous system balance
• Improves emotional regulation
• Improves resilience to stress
• Improves heart rate variability (HRV).

Author's Anecdote

I used to have a bad habit of tensing my abdomen while doing desk work, which elevated my stress levels. After practicing coherent breathing for a moderate amount of time, my wearable biometric device interpreted my lowered stress levels and heart rate as if I were sleeping. Pretty amazing.

Try Coherent Breathing

Box Breathing

Box breathing is often used to promote focus and control under pressure, making it popular among athletes and high-stress professionals. The hold phases sharpen focus, aid relaxation, and provide a sense of control, which is particularly helpful for managing anxiety. This method is both immediate and intense, effectively supporting the stress response in moments of acute anxiety or pressure.

A common box breathing method is the 4-7-8 technique:

1. Sit or lie down in a comfortable position
2. Place one hand on your abdomen and the other hand on your chest
3. Inhale for 4 seconds, ensuring your diaphragm inflates
4. Hold the breath for 7 seconds
5. Exhale slowly for 8 seconds
6. Continue this pattern for several minutes

For a simpler method, try a 4-4-4 box breathing technique.

Mindfulness Meditation

When was the last time you were aware of your own breathing?

As soon as we pay attention to our breath, as we breathe in, these three things—body, breath, and mind—come together. This can happen in just one or two seconds. You come back to yourself. Your awareness brings these three elements together, and you become fully present in the here and now. Thich Nhat Hanh

Mindfulness: Mindfulness is the practice of maintaining a continuous, non-judgmental awareness of one's thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and surrounding environment, often by anchoring attention to the breath or another sensory experience to stay grounded in the present. The mind may drift to ruminate on the past or imagine a non-existing future, with the goal being to gently return to the present moment.

Meditation: Meditation is the mental practice of focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity to train attention and awareness, achieving a mentally clear and emotionally calm state. There are many different meditation techniques.

Mindset: Practicing mindfulness reduces anxiety-inducing thoughts by helping individuals let go of "what ifs," worries, regrets, and concerns about situations beyond their control. It brings awareness to the present moment and focuses on what can be controlled. This practice shares similarities with the Stoic mindset, which emphasizes resilience against adversity and maintaining emotional stability when reality does not meet expectations.

Mental Clarity: By adopting mindfulness, one learns to perceive life with greater meaning and purpose, removing undue importance from fleeting external factors, thus viewing outcomes as neither inherently good nor bad, but simply as they are. This perspective encourages cherishing the present moment, recognizing its transient nature. Mindfulness promotes efficient use of time, emotional grounding, and maximizes productivity.

Mental Freedom: Meditation naturally fosters a mindset of non-attachment and non-judgment, allowing individuals to cultivate awareness and tranquility without ruminating on the past or becoming attached to future outcomes, as both are constructs of the mind.

Improving Mood: Meditation helps improve your overall mood and well-being, and increases your energy by unloading mental stresses. It is like a reset button for your brain when you're feeling anxious or overwhelmed.

Basic Practice: Doing at least 10 minutes of meditation each day, preferably in the morning, is a good start. One method of meditation is to:

1. Set a timer (optional).
2. Sit comfortably in a quiet room. Your spine should always be upright whether you are sitting on a chair or on the floor or on a buckwheat cushion.
3. You may close your eyes and focus on your breath, or fix your gaze at a still object or the flame of a candle.
4. Breathe in and out of your nose slowly and deeply for the first few minutes. As you inhale and exhale, always focus your awareness on the area around your nostrils or the rise and fall of your belly.
5. If a thought comes to your mind, which it inevitably will, observe it without judgment or emotion, and then return your mind to your breathing.
6. Optionally, while your breathing is regulated, you may do a "body scan" by having your mind feel the top of your head before slowly making its way down to your toes, or vice versa. You may repeat this exercise or return to your breathing.

Types of Meditation: Eastern traditions alone offer over a hundred distinct meditation techniques. Here are some of the most common ones:

• Vipassana (Mindfulness Meditation): Observing thoughts, emotions, and sensations with non-judgmental awareness.
• Transcendental Meditation: A mantra-based practice where a specific sound or phrase is silently repeated to focus the mind.
• Yoga Nidra: A guided practice of deep relaxation, often referred to as "yogic sleep," while maintaining conscious awareness.
• Loving-Kindness Meditation (Metta): Cultivating compassion and goodwill toward oneself and others using positive affirmations or visualisations.
• Focused Attention Meditation (Trataka): Focusing intently on a single object, such as a candle flame, to improve concentration and mental clarity.
• Body Scan Meditation: Gradually directing attention to bodily sensations to develop awareness and release tension, often incorporated into mindfulness practices.
• Kirtan Kriya: A meditative practice combining chanting, breathwork, and finger movements (mudras) for mental clarity and emotional balance.
• Breath Awareness Meditation (Pranayama): Focusing on the breath to calm the mind, balance energy, and enhance physical and mental well-being.

Long-term Effects: Over the long term, meditation enhances brain health and strengthens the immune health. When you are in a state of mental tranquility and channeling productivity into defined tasks or routines, such as working out, internal discipline becomes effortless, eliminating the need to rely on fleeting external motivation.

Sleep and RecoveryCopy Link

Insomnia and sleep apnea are conditions that require treatment by a medical professional.

Sleep and Rest

Sleep that knits up the ravell’d sleave of care,
The death of each day’s life, sore labour’s bath,
Balm of hurt minds, great nature’s second course,
Chief nourisher in life’s feast.
Shakespeare, Macbeth

Optimizing Sleep

Circadian Rhythms: Circadian rhythms are a fundamental biological process in all humans, including in our own microbiomes. They affect numerous physiological processes, including:

• Sleep-wake cycles
• Hormone production
• Body temperature regulation
• Metabolism
• Cognitive function

An essential component of circadian rhythms is the need for sleep. While diet and exercise are vital for fitness, longevity, and well-being, sleep plays an equally important—if not more crucial—role.

Did you know?

The transition to Daylight Saving Time (DST), particularly in spring when we "spring forward" and lose an hour of sleep, is associated with an increased risk of heart attacks by about 24%. This effect is typically observed in the days immediately following the time change.

Benefits: Sleep helps with recovery, muscle growth, performance, well-being, and mental health. With proper sleep, you will better preserve muscle mass and burn fat, as well as have properly regulating hormones, including testosterone.

How Much Sleep?: Despite the demands, challenges, and environment of modern life, conventional advice suggests that it is crucial to get 7–8 hours of sleep each night with teenagers needing up to 9 hours. However, research indicates that optimal sleep for adults may actually be closer to 7 hours per night. Interestingly, nonindustrialized populations, which do not rely on modern demands, alarm clocks, or strict schedules, naturally and comfortably average only 6.25 hours of sleep per night.

Circadian Rhythm and Your Chronotype: Your body's circadian rhythm, the internal 24-hour clock, demands regularity like clockwork: wake up and go to sleep at the same time every single night, no matter if it is the weekday or the weekend. Circadian rhythms can be shifted, only by an hour per night, if moving to a different time zone (i.e., "jet lag"). However, here's the crucial nuance: each one of us has a chronotype – the natural in-born tendency to be a "morning lark" or a "night owl," or somewhere in between. You are virtually bound to this unchangeable chronotype, whether you like it or not. This means that if you're a morning lark, staying up late could be hazardous to your health. Similarly, if you're a night owl, waking up early for work or school could be detrimental to your well-being. Most of us are naturally able to determine our own ideal sleep and wake-up times. Keep in mind, one's chronotype may not be congruent with their partner's.

Rest, Not Digest: After maintaining a consistent sleep schedule, the second most important factor for sleep quality is avoiding food and drink for at least 3–4 hours before bedtime. This allows the body to transition from digestion to sleep preparation, preventing disruptions that occur when the body focuses on digesting instead of resting. Eating too close to bedtime can raise core body temperature due to the metabolic process and can contribute to nighttime sweating. It may also impair sleep by elevating glucose levels, which affects sleep quality, especially since melatonin impairs glucose control. As a result, even with 8 hours of sleep, you may wake up feeling exhausted. For optimal rest, it's best to stop eating at least 3 hours before bed to maintain a lower core temperature and avoid issues like acid reflux. If you must eat, a small fibrous snack, like an apple, is less likely to impact sleep quality.

Food Cravings: If you sleep less than 6 hours a night, ghrelin, the "hunger hormone," increases. This leads to appetite cravings and overeating, often with a notable bias towards junk food, akin to having the "munchies".

Brain Cleansing: The brain has a cleansing/pruning system called the glymphatic system, which amplifies during during deep sleep. It washes away beta amyloid, which is a toxic protein, in order to protect and preserve our brain health from ailments such as dementia.

Deep Sleep: Deep sleep releases growth hormone and decreases cortisol levels, strengthens and organizes memories, restores and repairs cells and tissues, replenishes energy stores in the body, and enhances immune function and defense against illness. While the first part of our sleep largely consists of deep sleep, REM sleep often occurs during the latter part of our sleep.

REM Sleep: REM sleep helps with daily emotional regulation and recognition, problem solving, creativity, cognitive functioning, and is crucial for memory consolidation. We would not function or survive without REM sleep.

Hydration: Ideally, hydration should be addressed throughout the day, at least two hours before bedtime. However, a cup of water or caffeine-free tea is fine as long as it does not interrupt the sleep cycle due to a full bladder. However, going to the bathroom once a night is fine, as long as you can fall back asleep relatively quickly.

Caffeine: Caffeine, a stimulant, is best avoided at least 6 hours before bedtime, since coffee has a half-life of 5–6 hours (and a quarter-life of about 10–12 hours). The main reason to avoid caffeine after noon is that it counteracts the brain's neuromodulator, adenosine, which is what makes us feel sleepy.

Alcohol and Sleeping Pills: While alcohol is a sedative (sedation is not sleep), alcohol tends to fragment the sleep patterns and suppresses REM sleep. It is advisable to avoid alcohol at least 4 hours before bedtime. Like alcohol, sleeping pills are sedatives and can be addictive. Their use, even for treating insomnia, has been associated with a significantly increased risk of mortality.

Exercise and Recovery: While regular exercise helps sleep quality and reduced risk of daytime sleepiness, avoid vigorous physical activity just before bedtime. Such activity activates the body's sympathetic response ("fight-or-flight"), making it harder to fall asleep. After weight training, ideally earlier in the day, each muscle group requires at least 48 hours to repair, recover, and grow. Therefore, muscles in the same group should not be trained on consecutive days.

Further Reading

Why We Sleep by Matthew Walker is an eye-opening book on the importance of sleep.

Sleeping Environment

The ideal sleeping environment is one that is cooler than the day time temperature, and dark. The ideal room temperature is about 18ºC (65ºF) on average. The brain and body drops their core body temperature by 1ºC (2–3ºF) during sleep. The room should also be as dark as possible, because darkness triggers the sleep hormone, melatonin. Consider investing in blackout curtains or a sleeping mask.

Artificial (blue) light, which suppresses melatonin, and social media use before bed leads to issues in falling asleep and general sleep. Instead, to help with falling asleep, try reading a book with minimal soft light, or with front lighting, such as those found in e-readers, or meditate, or visualize a peaceful walk through nature.

Unless you can wake up naturally at the same time, wake up to a reliable alarm. Never hit the snooze button, as maintaining consistent hours and priming your body to wake up at the same time is essential. Open the curtains and turn on the lights to quickly adjust to daytime mode. Avoid checking the time before your alarm goes off, as this habit can consistently interrupt your sleep.

Falling Asleep

Naps and Siestas

For adults, if you regularly struggle to get 6 or more hours of sleep, avoid taking a nap during the day in order to build enough adenosine ("sleepiness") for a proper night's sleep. If you regularly get 6–7 hours of sleep, a siesta of 60–90 minutes of sleep in the afternoon during the postprandial window ("afternoon post-meal") can be beneficial. Ensure that siestas do not last past 2:00 p.m. Alternatively, a short 20 minute nap can give you a few hours of improved cognitive performance.

Getting Sleepy

Cold showers before bed may help you fall asleep sooner.

Other than the tried-and-true method of reading a book or dedicated e-reader, if you still have trouble falling asleep, these other methods may work for you:

• Blink 100–200 times, to make your eyelids feel "heavy."
• Do you feel any of your muscles tense? Relax them.
• Feeling anxious or active? Take slow and deep breaths. This will help relax you.
• With your eyes closed, imagine that you are in a pitch black hammock in the pitch black night.
• Imagine you are engaging in a quiet, peaceful, and relaxing activity that you enjoy doing.

Barriers to Restful Sleep

Some challenges to achieving quality sleep are not easy to fix. These include menopause, sleep apnea, insomnia, PTSD, restless leg syndrome (RLS) shift work, jet lag, chronic pain, and illness. Such limitations can often be mitigated through environmental changes, counselling, or adaptations.

Author's Anecdote

For the first thirty or so years of my life, I've struggled with falling asleep or have frequently woken up in the middle of the night. Now the only time I wake up is due to external interruptions. I've created my optimal sleeping environment: as dark, cool, and quiet as possible, with a comfortable (buckwheat) pillow, (hard) mattress, and (heavy) blanket. I fall asleep after a brief amount of time reading on my e-ink screen device. I wake up at the same time every morning, almost no exceptions. While a sleeping mask is indispensable at keeping light out, cold showers prior to bed relaxes me enormously. Not eating or hydrating for three hours before bed has been a game changer. These combination of factors give me the best possible sleep.

Sleeping Surfaces

While we're very adaptable to where we sleep, comfortable surfaces can help us sleep well. Quality bedding is a sound investment, especially since we spend about 1/3 of our life sleeping.

Research has shown that a medium-firm mattress is optimal for most people not only for comfort, but also for alleviating or preventing back pain.

Conventional Mattresses

There are a few different types of mattresses, including box spring, memory foam, and latex. Each type has their pros and cons, and should be considered for your personal and life preference:

• Box spring: The most cooling type due to the volume of the mattress mostly being air, however the springs may feel noticeable and will eventually lose its springiness over time.
• Memory foam: Inexpensive, conforms to the body, and has low motion transfer. However, the mattress runs hot – even with the short-lived "cooling gel". The mattress will eventually compress due to long term use.
• Latex: Breathable and cooling, durable and long-lasting, customizable, and eco-friendly. Since the material is springy for an even distribution of pressure, it also has a high degree of motion transfer.

Minimalist Sleep: Ground-Level Comfort

There is another potentially more desirable and inexpensive option that is common in East Asia and parts of South Asia: the floor. They lay on a sleeping mat or futon such as the Japanese shikibuton, Thai kapok, and Korean yo, and can also be folded and stored away to save space.

Since hot air rises, the floor is also the coolest area. It takes about two nights to a few weeks to adjust to floor sleeping from a Western mattress. Floor sleeping is not recommended for stomach sleepers, pregnant women, or persons with limited mobility.

Along with improved sleep quality, floor sleeping has been consistently reported to improve the back, joints, and posture, however these anecdotes have been not been thoroughly researched by the West. If there is any validity to the claims of floor sleeping, it does not appear to be a detriment since the life expectancies of the Japanese and Koreans are among the highest in the world.

Author's Anecdote

I've tried a makeshift type of shikibuton for at least a month by laying down a sleeping bag and duvet cover on the floor and sleeping on top of them. It is the firmest surface I've ever slept on. Surprisingly, I experienced the best sleep and comfort I've ever had (after a couple of nights of adjustment). Falling asleep was also consistently faster. Given that I'm occasionally prone to intermittent back pain, it has been incredible for my back, and my joints have noticeably felt less stiff. I personally find this choice to be an intriguing and meaningful alternative to Western bedding.

Cold Showers

Cold showers is a component of hormetic stress and hydrotherapy. It follows the concept of hormesis, which activates repair mechanisms, and boosts mitochondrial function, improving cellular health and reducing inflammation. Cold showers improve immunity and decrease sickness, especially when combined with exercise. Cold showers also help improve blood flow and the management of pain, fatigue, and anxiety. Mental discipline is also strengthened by subjecting yourself to small forms of adversity, and it can momentarily dissolve the ego.

A cold shower can be conducted either by immersing yourself from warm water to the coldest setting that you can tolerate, or going straight to the coldest temperature that you can tolerate. Benefits can be achieved after only 30 seconds.

Author's Anecdote

While cold showers helping people fall asleep sooner is inconclusive in studies, in my experience, cold showers consistently improves the quality of my sleep. While cold showers are initially invigorating by shocking the body's system, it also has the after-effects of a warm and relaxed sensation—due to post-shower vasodilation and the release of endorphins. Give it a try and see if helps the quality of your sleep.

Saunas

Like cold showers, saunas are a type of heat therapy, particularly popular in Finland. Saunas provide another example of hormesis, where the increased production of heat shock proteins helps repair damaged cells and improve resilience. Saunas offer multiple health benefits, including improved immunity, enhanced blood flow, and better management of pain, fatigue, and anxiety. Saunas can aid in muscle recovery and reduce muscle soreness after exercise.

Before entering a sauna, hydrate well, shower, and wear a towel or light clothing. Start with 5–10 minutes if you are new to saunas, while 15–20 minutes is recommended. If you feel dizzy or uncomfortable, leave immediately. After leaving the sauna, cool down for at least 10–15 minutes. Shower with cool water and rehydrate. Beginners can go 1–2 times per week, while regular users can go 3–4 times a week.

Injuries, Soreness, and Illness

If you have persistent muscle or tendon pain, it is recommended to see a licensed physiotherapist. Early intervention can prevent the pain from worsening and help avoid long-term complications. Don't ignore the pain, as it may lead to chronic issues that could significantly impact your mobility and quality of life.

If you are sick, it is advisable to rest until you are fully recovered before engaging in exercise, unless you are able to do light cardio. Pushing through illness can prolong recovery and worsen symptoms.

Experiencing muscle soreness after a workout is normal, and it is typically a sign of muscle adaptation and growth called delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). However, if you experience sharp or severe pain, this may indicate an injury. In such cases, consult with a doctor and avoid exercises that aggravate the pain.

For permanent injuries, age-related conditions such as arthritis, or motor movement disabilities, it is crucial to work under the guidance of a doctor or qualified professional. They can help develop a safe and effective exercise routine. Some injuries or disabilities may require specialized equipment or footwear to accomodate physical abilities and prevent further injury.

Activity Level

Active individuals require more calories to balance their higher energy expenditure, while sedentary individuals need fewer. However, overeating is more often driven by poor dietary choices than by activity level.

If you've been exercising on a nearly daily basis and, despite proper sleep and nutrition, you feel unusually sluggish or tired, that's your body telling you that you need to take a day off to recover. You may get a significant performance boost the following day.

HabitsCopy Link

Proper diet and exercise are two core components of leading a healthy lifestyle. They have profound compounding effects that affect our overall well-being.

Most of us live a typical Western lifestyle, characterised by ultra-processed foods (UPFs) and prolonged sitting, both of which negatively affect our well-being.

A lifestyle is not temporary. It's for life.

The Western Lifestyle

A Vicous Cycle

Westernization of society leads to a higher standard of living, but it also promotes excess and laziness, resulting in increased body fat and a sedentary lifestyle. Indulging in just one poor habit (e.g., consuming more sugar) can trigger other negative habits or consequences, such as developing insulin resistance, a precursor to diabetes, which makes it harder to lose fat.

Since actions and causes are largely interdependent, it is easy to fall into a downward spiral that becomes a vicious cycle. One lifestyle action can create mental and physical consequences that then influence other lifestyle choices and decisions.

🍕 Consuming Excess Calories

• ↓ Lower nutrient density
• ↓ Lower hydration
• ↓ Lower satiation
• ↑ Increased hunger and cravings
• ↑ Increased food portions
• ↑ Increased body weight
• ↑ Greater blood sugar spikes and energy crashes

🍭 Eating More Sugar

• × Minimal to no nutrients
• ↑ Increased inflammation
• ↑ Increased blood sugar spikes and crashes
• ↑ Higher appetite cravings
• ↑ Greater food consumption
• ↑ Higher body fat
• ↓ Lower insulin sensitivity (risk of type 2 diabetes)
• ↓ Decreased long-term metabolic health

🥱 Lack of Sleep

• ↓ Decreased mental performance
• ↓ Decreased memory and focus
• ↓ Decreased physical performance and muscle recovery
• ↓ Decreased muscle growth and repair
• ↓ Poor hormone regulation (e.g., cortisol, leptin, and ghrelin)
• ↑ Increased appetite and cravings
• ↑ Increased body fat and decreased lean mass
• ↑ Elevated stress levels

🛋️ Being Sedentary

• ↓ Fewer calories burned
• ↓ Muscle atrophy
• ↓ Slower metabolism and reduced fat-burning hormones
• ↓ Decreased energy, strength, and endurance
• ↑ Increased risk of sleep disorders
• ↑ Higher risk of chronic stress, anxiety, and depression
• ↑ Increased risk of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes
• ↑ Increased body fat accumulation
• ↑ Greater risk of cardiovascular diseases

🤢 Result: Unhealthy

• 💉 ↑ Greater risk of aging diseases: diabetes, cancer, dementia, and heart disease
• 🩺 ↑ Higher cholesterol, blood sugar, and blood pressure
• 🧍‍♂️ ↓ Decreased balance, mobility, and joint health
• 💔 ↓ Decreased physical attractiveness, libido, and self-esteem
• 😞 ↓ Decreased happiness, mood, and confidence
• 🩼 ↓ Decreased health, fitness, and lifespan

The Healthy Lifestyle

A Virtuous Cycle

By changing a few major lifestyle habits, you can see how by even changing one positive action can create a chain of several positive effects for your mental and physical states.

🍲 Consuming Proper Calories

• ↑ Increased nutrient density
• ↑ Improved hydration and electrolyte balance
• ↑ Increased satiation and fullness
• ↓ Reduced hunger and cravings
• ↓ Smaller food portions
• ↓ Lower storage of body fat
• ↑ Better energy levels and reduced blood sugar fluctuations

🍎 Eating Less Sugar

• × Avoiding empty calories and nutrient deficiencies
• ↑ Enhanced overall health and vitality
• ↓ Decreased systemic inflammation
• ↓ Reduced appetite cravings and energy crashes
• ↓ Lower caloric intake and improved portion control
• ↓ Reduced storage of body fat
• ↑ Better insulin sensitivity and metabolic health

😴 Getting Enough Sleep

• ↑ Improved mental performance, focus, and decision-making
• ↑ Enhanced memory retention and learning ability
• ↑ Better muscle recovery and growth
• ↑ Increased physical performance and stamina
• ↑ Improved regulation of hormones (e.g., cortisol, leptin, ghrelin)
• ↓ Reduced stress and emotional eating
• ↓ Lower storage of body fat and improved metabolic health

📅 Exercising Consistently

• ↑ More calories burned daily
• ↑ Increased muscle mass and strength
• ↑ Higher metabolism and improved fat-burning hormones
• ↑ Better energy, endurance, and overall fitness
• ↑ Enhanced sleep quality and recovery
• ↓ Reduced chronic stress, anxiety, and depression
• ↓ Decreased body fat and improved body composition
• ↑ Increased cardiovascular health and resilience

🏋️‍♂️ Result: Fit

• ⚕️ ↓ Decreased risk of chronic diseases (e.g., diabetes, cancer, dementia, and heart disease)
• 🩸 ↓ Lower cholesterol, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels
• 🚴🏻‍♂️ ↑ Improved balance, mobility, and joint health
• 💖 ↑ Increased physical attractiveness, libido, and self-confidence
• 😊 ↑ Elevated happiness, mood, and emotional resilience
• 💪 ↑ Enhanced overall health, fitness, and lifespan

Set yourself up for a better tomorrow by embracing the the struggle for today. Dr. Alok Kanojia

Addiction

Another contributing factor to overeating and obesity is addiction. Most of us are addicted to some substance. Even if we avoid drugs, we're usually consuming caffeine from coffee or tea—not that there's anything wrong with that.

Let's talk about refined carbohydrates, fried foods, and sweet products. Hyperpalatable foods are designed to be addictive and thus, overconsumed, echoing Pringles' slogan of "Once you pop, you can't stop." The sweet, salty, or fried properties of hyperpalatable foods target the brain's reward center, drawing parallels to drugs.

Sugar is a major source linked to food addiction, as it releases dopamine, resembling a drug of abuse.

Did you know?

The promotion of free refills on sugary drinks is a clever loss leader designed to hook people on an addictive product. France recognizes this, which is why free refills have been banned in the country.

To check if you have a possible food addiction, taking the Yale food addiction scale quiz could reveal insights into your own dietary behaviours.

Author's Anecdote

Ask yourself, “Who doesn't have a sweet tooth?” From an evolutionary perspective, we're wired to seek out sweet sources (i.e. honey) for a safe source of calories, as part of our survival. Now that sugar can be produced cheaply on a mass scale, they are found everywhere in packaged foods. We can clearly see the negative consequences from that.

Changing Habits

When we are no longer able to change a situation, we are challenged to change ourselves. Viktor E. Frankl

Changing a habit is difficult for most people. It is easy to slip back into old habits even after a short period of success. The key to establishing long-lasting good habits is to start slow by making micro-adjustments.

For example, if you drink six cans of pop/soda a day, try reducing your intake to five cans per day for the next week, then four cans per day the following week, and so on. Replace the unhealthy with something healthier but still enjoyable—for instance, add a splash of lemon juice to your water. This gradual reduction and substitution helps you adjust your tolerance to the bliss point of sweetness. Once you reach zero cans a day, you might be surprised by how sweet the pop/soda tastes and how unpleasant you feel after drinking six cans!

It can take anywhere from a few weeks to several months to normalize a new habit, depending on the difficulty of the task or activity.

Understanding Habit and Emotion

Emotion Rules: Scottish philosopher David Hume famously wrote, “Reason is slave to the passions.” What this means is that actions (habit) are carried out by passion (emotions), rather than by reason (honest application of knowledge).

The rational brain knows that junk food is unhealthy, yet for most people, the desire to consume the candy bar for temporary pleasure overrides the knowledge that this candy bar will upset you afterwards and lead to poor health. Emotion is a perfectly normal and natural response. Emotions are necessary to shape dispositions, enable decisiveness, and spur creativity, but they are also responsible for impulsiveness and poor habits. How can we harness the power of emotions to be the best versions of ourselves?

Habit-Emotion Relationship: Habit is the direct consequence of emotion. Hume indirectly warns us that having poor habits may lead to unwanted consequences, such as eating junk food leading to poor health. We can be in a natural state of good habits that we wish to follow, with personal standards and principles. Transformation can be achieved by changing poor habits into good habits. Remember, your self-worth is independent of your actions. Instead of judging yourself for your actions, see them as behaviours that can be learned and changed.

Discipline is Key: How do we then re-direct emotion towards good habits and principles? How do we align emotion and reason so they don't contradict and give way to "guilty pleasure"? Through discipline. Discipline arises in the first place because of the desire, an emotion, for change. However, change takes time, dedication, and consistent effort to cultivate this desire for change into habit. Once routine becomes habit, it then becomes part of self-discipline, or second nature. With the new habit as a default state, the natural emotional response then becomes, "This junk food is detrimental to my health, which is undesirable. I do not want to eat it because I gain no pleasure in being unhealthy. Being healthy is far more enjoyable."

Shape Your Environment: Your environment, both at work and at home, influences and shapes your behaviour. While you may not be able to control every aspect of your environment, you can design it to support healthier habits. Stock your fridge, freezer, and pantry with healthy foods to encourage cooking at home rather than spending extra money eating out. Pack your lunch for work to make it easier and more likely that you'll stick to your prepared meal. For unhealthy foods that are in the home, hide them or create friction by placing them in hard-to-reach places.

Make New Friends?: It can be very difficult and uncomfortable when your circle of friends does not support a healthy lifestyle. It's common for friends to have similar lifestyles, for better or worse—due to bonding, social norms, and peer pressure. It can be tempting to reach for the snack bowl, slice of pizza, or can of pop while playing video games or huddling in front of the TV, especially when all your friends are doing it. Then there are friends who hit the gym together or chat while jogging or hiking, which helps encourage a healthier lifestyle.

Making Improvements

Here are some tips in changing your habits:

• Make lists of small, manageable habits you want to change, day-by-day and week-by-week.
• Track each goal every day, either by making a mental note or writing it down on paper. Give yourself a checkmark or a sticker if you successfully complete the day's goal.
• If you don't complete a goal, don't worry about it. Be committed to trying again the next time. Life happens. Consistency is what truly matters. Achieving 80% instead of 100% is still better than nothing.
• Starting the task or activity is the hardest part. Once you begin, however, it gets easier. Try committing to just 5 minutes exercising. This little brain hack increases the odds of turning it into a 15- or 30-minute session.
• Focus more on discipline than on motivation, which relies on external demands. Discipline is what gets you through a challenge even when you don't have motivation. However, be mindful that discipline is cognitively draining, so balance with restorative sleep and rest.

Never miss twice. James Clear, Atomic Habits

The Habit Pattern

All habits fall into these patterns:

Cue	Routine	Reward
Look up SSF recipes	Cook, or re-heat cooked leftovers	Eat healthy, delicious meals
Put on running shoes	Run	Listen to favourite television podcast
See poster of favourite athlete	Lift weights	Eat favourite post-workout meal
It's 4 p.m. on Sunday	Week's worth of grocery shopping	Save money by not eating out
Feeling hungry	Prep, cook or re-heat cooked leftovers	Be satiated
Still feeling hungry	Drink tea	Be satisfied

Note that all the cues and rewards can remain exactly the same while the routine can always change. The key is to make the routine beneficial to you. Understanding this pattern will help you apply it to your own diet or exercise goals.

Further Reading

The Power of Habit by Charles Duhigg.

Body ImageCopy Link

Take care of your body. It's the only place you have to live. Jim Rohn

Focus on Health

While having a great looking body is a motivating factor in becoming fit, the primary outlook should be for health.

Good health is subconsciously attractive, and aesthetics follow as a consequence of being healthy. Making health a priority directly affects mental and physical well-being, which helps reduce body image issues.

Tip

Focusing on nutrition and exercise instead of weight and appearance would often lead to more desirable physical results. All without the pressure.

Health at All Sizes?

Diet and activity level affect both physical shape and overall health.

Chronic overconsumption (diet) and a sedentary lifestyle (activity level) lead to obesity (physical shape) and increase the risk of metabolic disease (health). Therefore, there is no such thing as "health at all sizes."

It is important to love your body, but loving your body also means nourishing and strengthening it.

Body Dysmorphia

Many men see themselves as less muscular than they actually are, and many women see themselves as heavier than they actually are. Some take it to the extreme with muscle dysmorphia (hypermasculinity) or anorexia, which are disorders that must be treated through professional help.

The mirror can be deceptive and the scale can be misleading. Focusing on measures of health and leading a healthy lifestyle is more reliable than the subjective illusion of how you appear. Cognitive distortion is all too common.

Everything we see is a perspective, not the truth. Marcus Aurelius (121–180 AD), Meditations

Body TypesCopy Link

Adjusting for height, almost every single human being fits into one of the following common body types.

AnatomyCopy Link

Anterior View

Anterior Functions

Abs (rectus abdominis) and Obliques

Stabilizes the core, assists in flexing the spine, and aids in lateral flexion and rotation of the trunk.

Adductors (adductor longus, adductor brevis, and adductor magnus)

Adducts the thigh, stabilizes the pelvis during walking.

Biceps (biceps brachii)

Bending (flexion) of the elbow, supination of the forearm (rotating the forearm to turn the palm up).

Brachialis

Flexes the elbow joint.

Calves (gastrocnemius)

Raising of the heels (plantar flexion of the foot).

Delts (deltoid)

Allows rotation and abduction of the arms, flexion, and extension at the shoulder joint.

Forearms

Movement of the wrist and fingers, including flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction.

Hip Flexors (iliopsoas)

Flexes the hip joint, bringing the thigh towards the torso.

Pecs (pectoralis)

Movement of the arms towards the midline of the body (adduction), as well as flexion, extension, and rotation of the humerus.

Quads (quadriceps)

Extending the knee and flexing the hip (rectus femoris).

Serratus Anterior

Protracts and stabilizes the scapula, assists in upward rotation.

Sternocleidomastoid

Flexes the neck, rotates the head to the opposite side, and assists in breathing.

Tibialis Anterior

Dorsiflexion of the foot (lifting the foot upwards) and inversion of the foot.

Traps (trapezius)

Lifting, rotating, and retracting the shoulder blades (scapula), as well as extending the neck.

Triceps (triceps brachii)

Extending the elbow and assisting in shoulder adduction.

Posterior View

Posterior Functions

Calves (gastrocnemius and soleus)

Raising of the heels (plantar flexion of the foot).

Delts (deltoid)

Allows rotation and abduction of the arms, flexion, and extension at the shoulder joint.

Forearms (extensor muscles)

Movement of the wrist and fingers, including extension, abduction, and adduction.

Glutes (gluteus maximus, medius, and minimus)

Extending and rotating the hip, stabilizing the pelvis, and straightening the hip joints.

Hamstrings (biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus)

Bending (flexion) of the knee and extending the hip.

Infraspinatus

External rotation of the shoulder joint.

Lats (latissimus dorsi)

adduction, and internal rotation of the shoulder joint, as well as moving the arms towards the midline of the body.

Rhomboids (major and minor)

Retracting the scapula and stabilizing the shoulder blades.

Soleus

Plantar flexion of the foot, important for standing and walking.

Spinal Erectors (erector spinae)

Extension of the back and maintaining core stability.

Teres Major

Assists in the internal rotation and adduction of the humerus.

Traps (trapezius)

Lifting, rotating, and retracting the shoulder blades (scapula), as well as extending the neck.

Triceps (triceps brachii)

Extending the elbow and assisting in shoulder adduction.

Body WeightCopy Link

Composition

Your body weight does not consist of just muscle and fat, but also water, blood, organs, waste, tissue, and bones. Your scale tells you your weight, but it doesn't accurately tell you how much of it is lean muscle and how much of it is fat. If you gain or lose a few pounds over the course of the day, it is likely just fluctuations of water weight. Measuring week-by-week, first thing in the morning, is a more reliable way to track progress.

Did you know?

Fat is stored not only as benign subcutaneous fat beneath the skin but also as dangerous visceral fat, which accumulates around your organs and can cause your abdomen to protrude. This makes it crucial to be mindful of where fat is stored, as visceral fat is particularly harmful for health. A DEXA scan would reveal your VAT (visceral adipose tissue).

BMI

BMI is not a reliable indicator of body composition, especially for athletes, as it fails to distinguish between muscle mass and fat mass. Measurements such as body fat and lean mass from a DEXA scan are much more accurate, and the waist-to-height ratio is also more reliable. However, BMI remains a quick and useful tool for assessing the general population and identifying obesity.

BMI (body mass index) takes only weight into account, while body fat percentage takes the ratio of lean mass (muscle) into account. For that reason, body fat percentage reflects a more accurate picture of overall fitness and health.

For instance, a 5′10″ 180 lbs male with 10% body fat has better fitness than a 5′10″ 180 lbs male with 25% body fat, even though both are considered overweight on the BMI scale.

Did you know?

You can expect to naturally, healthily, and realistically burn up to 2 lbs of fat per week (the obese can burn more), or build no more than roughly 0.5 lbs of muscle per week, where beginners would see the biggest gains.

Body Composition Factors

Most of your body composition (fat + lean mass) results from diet and exercise.

While diet is the primary driver of weight change through calorie management, exercise complements this by promoting muscle growth, improving fat loss through increased energy expenditure, and enhancing metabolism, which helps prevent future fat gain.

Nutrition is the foundation and exercise works hand-in-hand with it. Exercise also provides significant health benefits.

Type of Change	Diet Effects	Exercise Effects
🍕 Body Fat	★★★★☆	★★★☆☆
💪 Muscle Mass	★★★☆☆	★★★★★
🦴 Bone Density	★★★☆☆	★★★★☆
⚡ Metabolic Rate	★★★☆☆	★★★★☆

Genetics

People are different, but not that different. Bret Contereras

Muscularity and Obesity

Unique Physical Characteristics: Our height, body structure, predisposition to store fat, and muscularity are largely genetically determined by the time we reach puberty. These attributes form our base shape and appearance and cannot be significantly changed without surgery or drugs. However, we can alter our body fat and muscle composition to sculpt a new shape. Keep in mind that we have a natural limit for muscular potential.

Obesity and Genetics: Obesity is primarily influenced by behavioral and environmental factors rather than by genetics, as there is only a small variance in resting metabolism from person to person. There is a significant correlation between trauma and obesity, as coping mechanisms involving comfort foods and cortisol dysregulation from stress often lead to habitual emotional eating.

Obesity and Environment: Genetic predisposition to obesity can be triggered by the environment, affecting our behavior, but the basic energy balance mechanism (Law of Thermodynamics) remains the same. In other words, a healthy lifestyle can prevent obesity.

If you struggle to lose weight despite exercising consistently and following a healthy diet, you may need to address potential metabolic issues by understanding your set point and reviewing your bloodwork. For instance, insulin resistance, a precursor to type 2 diabetes, can make it harder to shed fat.

Author's Anecdote

I took a genetic test and discovered that I have several genetic markers that increase my predisposition to obesity. Despite this, I am living proof that the risk of obesity can be mitigated with proper diet and exercise.

Genetic Predispositions to Diseases

Many populations are at higher risk for certain age-related diseases that can manifest early or during their 40s and 50s. Diabetes, cancer, and heart disease are the most common conditions influenced by genetic predispositions. For instance, specific genes can lead to glucose hypersensitivity, increasing the risk for diabetes, or influence lipid (cholesterol) profiles, contributing to heart disease.

One way to assess your risk profile is to examine your family history. The most accurate method, however, is through genetic testing, which can be obtained through your healthcare provider.

Body Fat

Did you know?

The body can only hold around 500 grams (2000 calories) of carbohydrates while the body can hold at least 10,000 calories of fat, which makes fat an "unlimited" source of fuel.

An excellent way of finding out your approximate body fat percentage at home is by using calipers. You can find a more precise body fat percentage at a gym or medical center that offers DEXA scans. Electronic weight scales does not measure body fat accurately.

You can also roughly guess your own body fat percentage by looking at your midsection in the mirror. If you have no visible abdominal muscles, you are likely over 20% body fat (or over 30% for women). If you can see partial outlines of your abs, you are likely 15–19% (25–29% for women). If you can see full abdominal muscles, you are likely at the most 10% (20% for women).

Women naturally have higher body fat percentages because of extra fatty tissue in their breasts, thighs, and buttocks.

Did you know?

You cannot spot reduce fat. When you burn fat, you burn it from all over your body. Men typically have stubborn fat in their abdominal and lower back areas, classified as android fat distribution ("apple-shaped"). Women, on the other hand, tend to store more fat in their thighs, glutes, and breasts, known as gynoid fat distribution ("pear-shaped"). The amount of fat stored in these areas is largely determined by genetics.

Did you know?

While six-pack abs may indicate a lean appearance, more reliable indicators of low visceral fat ("belly/organ fat") include waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio, triglyceride levels, fasting insulin levels, and C-reactive protein levels. These measures provide a more accurate assessment of the health risks associated with fat distribution. A DEXA scan can also reveal your visceral adipose tissue (VAT).

Desired Body Weight

The DBW calculator below can help you find your desired body weight based on known body fat percentage:

SSF DBW Calculator

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Desired Body Fat

%

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Author's Anecdote

I have used calipers on three skinfold sites, which provide a rough estimate for body fat percentage. However, a DEXA scan offers a more precise measurement.

MetabolismCopy Link

Boosting Metabolism

A higher metabolism comes with plenty of benefits:

• 🔥 Burn more calories
• ⚖️ Easier weight management
• 💪 Improved muscle mass
• ⚡ Sustained energy levels
• 🫀 Better metabolic health
• 🛡️ Lower risk of chronic diseases

Metabolic Variation: There is little variability with resting metabolism across humans when controlled for factors like age, sex, and body composition. However, metabolism can slow down during a caloric deficit and increase after strength training.

3 vs. 6 Meals: Consuming three or six meals in a day also has little effect on metabolism, however snacking does elevate blood sugar, making it more likely to store energy as fat. Lean muscle mass, the thermogenesis of foods (especially protein), and the gut microbiome contribute to an increased metabolism.

Exercise Effects: Metabolism increases with exercise, particularly anaerobic training. This is due to the afterburn effect, also known as excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC), protein synthesis, the release of growth hormones and adrenaline, and the energy required for muscle maintenance and repair.

Muscle Mass: The more muscle mass one has, the higher the metabolism. Muscle tissue burns more calories at rest compared to fat tissue, leading to greater overall calorie expenditure.

Did you know?

Muscle burns three times more calories than fat at rest.

Metabolic Compensation

The more active you are, the hungrier you'll be.

By exercising more, your body may naturally increase your appetite to maintain energy balance by consuming more calories. This phenomenon is known as metabolic compensation.

This can make it challenging to lose weight through aerobic exercise as your body adjusts by increasing hunger. However, to successfully change your weight, be mindful of your eating habits and incorporate tools like intermittent fasting. The key is to combine exercise with a balanced diet rich in nutritious foods. In the short term, counting calories can be a helpful tool for educating yourself about your dietary patterns and eating habits.

Although related, metabolic compensation involves changes in energy expenditure, whereas the set point theory describes the weight range your body naturally maintains through physiological adaptations and regulatory processes.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria ("tiny engines" or "small batteries") are organelles, often referred to as the powerhouses of the cell. They produce energy (ATP) from nutrients and regulate metabolism, playing a crucial role in overall vitality and health.

Lack of physical activity causes mitochondrial decay. When mitochondria are impaired, several critical consequences can occur:

• Reduced energy production: Leads to fatigue and decreased cellular function.
• Increased oxidative stress: Causes cellular damage and contributes to aging and chronic diseases such as neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular issues, and cancer.
• Metabolic dysregulation: Increases the risk of obesity, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes.
• Weakened immune system and accelerated aging: Makes the body more susceptible to infections and reduces overall health and longevity.

Mitochondria are strengthened, produced, and enhanced through Zone 2 aerobic training, which contributes to improved endurance, delayed aging, and reduced risk of chronic diseases. Fasting (typically 24+ hours or through specific protocols like the Fasting-Mimicking Diet) also improves mitochondrial function by promoting the production of new mitochondria, enhancing their efficiency, reducing oxidative stress, and triggering autophagy.

Gut MicrobiomeCopy Link

Our gut microbiome is far more important than a mere "gut feeling." The saying “you are what you eat” takes on a new dimension.

Did you know?

The human body has roughly 30 trillion human cells, while the gut microbiome comprises about 39 trillion microbial cells, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microorganisms, primarily concentrated in the large intestine.

The foods you eat can encourage the growth of specific bacteria. For instance, a diet rich in soluble fibre from oats, barley, and legumes promotes beneficial bacteria that produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) like butyrate. Butyrate has anti-inflammatory effects and activates brown adipose tissue, boosting energy expenditure. These SCFAs play a crucial role in gut health and contribute to protecting us from pathogens. To simplify, fibre is the prebiotics and our gut microbes are the probiotics. When they combine, they create a new compound, called a postbiotic.

Microorganisms in our digestive tracts regulate energy balance and weight. The ecosystem in your gut can be modified through a long-term diet, which can either contribute to good health or to inflammation leading to diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes.

The composition of the gut microbiota has been shown to differ between lean and obese individuals, likely due to their food choices. As a result, individuals may respond differently to the same foods due to variations in their gut microbiota, potentially leading to differences in weight gain or glucose response, even when consuming identical meals.

Did you know?

Your bowel movements tell you a lot about your gut microbiome. If you are getting soft, snake-like stools, you're doing great. If you're straining for nuggets or getting watery results, you likely need to make changes to your diet.

Gut-Brain Axis

The gut-brain axis is a bidirectional communication network that links the central nervous system (CNS) with the enteric nervous system (ENS) of the gastrointestinal tract. In other words, the brain and the gut are always in constant communication with each other.

In the nervous system pathway, the vagus nerve (our "information superhighway") instantly transmits signals from the gut to the brain and vice versa, playing a crucial role in regulating digestion, appetite, mood, cognition, and memory.

95% of the feel-good neurotransmitter serotonin is found in the gut, not in the brain, and hormones such as leptin and ghrelin are part of the gut-brain communication system. This gut-brain connection influences our mood, behavior, and certain cognitive processes. The gut microbiota can even raise the baseline levels of dopamine.

There is growing evidence that the gut microbiome affects mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, and autism spectrum disorders. Changes in the microbiome composition, even through stress and social situations, can alter neurotransmitter levels and inflammation, impacting mood and behavior.

Dietary Feedback Loop

Eat What You Crave, Crave What You Eat

You might despise the taste of broccoli, mushrooms, beans, and onions, likely because your gut lacks the proper microbiome to crave these types of foods. However, by limiting sugar, meat, and fried foods, and cultivating a new microbiome through cooking whole foods and adding spices to meals, your tastes can begin to change. Over time—since taste buds on the tongue regenerate approximately every two weeks—you may be surprised to find that you no longer crave sugar, meat, or fried foods.

Gut Command Centre: Other than stress, the microbiome can influence your food preferences and cravings. Certain bacteria thrive on particular nutrients and may send signals to your brain to encourage the consumption of foods that support their growth. This phenomenon suggests a feedback loop where what you eat influences the microbiome, which in turn can affect your dietary choices.

Brain-Gut on Sugar: In other words, if you feed your gut sugar, you are promoting the growth of bacteria that crave sugar. This feedback loop is thus reinforced, with the bacteria sending signals to your brain to consume more sugar, supporting the sugar-loving bacteria in your gut. This also causes an indirect feedback loop on mood and hunger.

Cultivate Good: There is a clear symbiotic relationship between the brain and the gut, where the gut influences the brain. However, we have control over how we choose to cultivate the microbiome.

Improving Gut Health

Improving your gut health is primarily achieved through consuming a wide variety of plant food sources, which promotes a diverse microbiome. Individuals who consume 30 different types of plant sources per week – which includes herbs and spices, coffee and tea, nuts and seeds, whole grains and legumes – have the healthiest guts. This site provides simple meals that can get you 40 per day.

Tip

80% of your dietary work is done if you simply consume at least 30 different plant sources in a week.

1. Diversity: Eat a diverse range of foods, especially foods that contain fibre. A variety of foods leads to a diverse microbiota, which is beneficial for overall health.
2. Probiotics: Include fermented foods, which contain diverse ecosystems of beneficial microbiomes. Examples of fermented foods are unsweetened yogurt, kefir, certain cheeses (like gouda, mozzarella, and cheddar), miso (if not cooked at high temperatures), soy sauce, tempeh, natto, kombucha (if not pasteurized), and raw or unpasteurized sauerkraut, kimchi, pickles, carrots, and beetroot that are naturally fermented in brine without vinegar. They are rich in probiotics that can enhance gut health and significantly reduce inflammation.
3. Prebiotics: Consume prebiotics from foods, as these act like fertilizers for beneficial gut bacteria, including probiotics. Prebiotics are essentially fibre, resistant starch, and polyphenols. Many types of fibre act as prebiotics and they all come from plants and mushrooms (fungi). Prebiotics are non-digestible fibres that feed beneficial bacteria in the gut. Foods rich in prebiotics include mushrooms, garlic, onions, leeks, asparagus, bananas, lentils, beans, and whole grains.
4. Resistant Starch: Another type of prebiotic, called resistant starch, is found in many starchy foods, such as green bananas, cooked and cooled potatoes, rice, beans, lentils, some whole grains such as oats and barley, and to a lesser extent, sweet potatoes. It resists digestion and functions similarly to fibre. It promotes satiety and supports healthy gut microbiota. However, processed and refined starchy foods such as pasta and bread should be limited to ~50 grams per day due to the potential for higher calories, blood sugar spikes, nutrient imbalances, and digestive issues.
5. Polyphenols: The third type of prebiotic compounds are colorful polyphenols, which are notably found in blueberries, strawberries, tea leaves (especially green tea), dark chocolate, red wine (from grapes), and certain nuts and seeds. Resveratrol, found in red wine, is a type of polyphenol. Polyphenols are metabolized by gut microbiota and provide various heart and gut health benefits, along with anti-inflammatory effects. They offer advantages not just as antioxidants but also through their interactions with the gut microbiome and other physiological systems, contributing to long-term health in ways that isolated antioxidant supplements may not. Polyphenols are found only in plant sources and honey.
6. Limit Unhealthy Foods: Restrict ultra-processed food and sugar. They promote the growth of harmful bacteria.
7. Antibiotics: While antibiotics save lives by fighting harmful bacteria, they can also eliminate beneficial bacteria, leading to reduced immunity, increased risk of infections, and gastrointestinal issues. Additionally, antibiotics are commonly used in the production of livestock and fish, which we later consume, potentially contributing to antibiotic resistance.
8. Exercise: Do low-intensity aerobic exercise for at least 15 minutes every day, ideally 30. Physical activity activates the endocannabinoid system (responsible for the "runner's high") and positively influences the gut microbiome, particularly the microbes that produce butyrate. Anti-inflammatory butyrate-producing microbes positively affects gut, immune, metabolic, and brain health.

Fermented Foods and Probiotics

Note

Avoid the shelved versions of pickled vegetables, as they are pickled in vinegar rather than brine (salted water). While still healthy, vinegar kills the beneficial bacteria—probiotics—that are prized in fermentation. Fermented versions of sauerkraut and kimchi are typically refrigerated, but be sure to double-check the label. Even better, you can make sauerkraut and kimchi at home.

The primary reason why fermented foods, such as pickles, sauerkraut, kimchi, miso, tempeh, unpasteurized cheese, kefir, plain Greek yogurt, kombucha, etc. are considered beneficial for health is due to their rich diversity of probiotics, which are beneficial bacteria. These probiotics can help to strengthen the gut microbiome, which plays a crucial role in overall health, including:

• 🥗 Improved digestion, which helps in the breakdown and absorption of nutrients.
• 🛡️ Stronger immune function by helping to protect against harmful pathogens.
• 🔥 Reduction of chronic inflammation in the gut, which is associated with chronic diseases.
• ⚖️ Help with weight management, since gut bacteria affect metabolism.
• 🧬 Production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), vitamins, and enzymes that are not present prior to fermentation. SCFAs contribute to metabolic health.
• 🧠 Improved mental health through the gut-brain axis. A healthy gut microbiome can reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression.

Fermenting Grains: Taking it a step further, fermenting grains, such as soaking oats overnight in water with plain yogurt or kefir, enhances their nutritional profile and digestibility. This process provides many of the same benefits listed above, including improved digestion and increased nutrient availability. Keep in mind that heating foods above 104ºF (40ºC) after fermenting can kill the helpful bacteria. However, the vitamins and minerals will still remain.

Did you know?

Sauerkraut is simply cabbage fermented in brine (salted water), while kimchi is similar but includes additional ingredients such as radishes, onion, garlic, and chili peppers.

Allergies, Intolerances, and InflammationCopy Link

Food Allergies

Common food allergies are peanuts, eggs, dairy, fish, soy, shellfish, tree nuts, corn, and wheat.

They can cause a range of symptoms from mild to severe. While genetics play a significant role, environmental factors such as early life exposure, hygiene, and diet, as well as the composition of the gut microbiota, also contribute to the development of food allergies.

Food Intolerances

Food intolerances, which include symptoms of digestive issues such as bloating, heartburn, cramps, constipation, and diarrhea, are commonly observed after consuming sugar-based products, cow's milk/lactose, and wheat gluten.

Histamine Intolerance: Another type of food intolerance, which may cause inflammation, acid reflux, fatigue, or hives, involves a neurotransmitter called histamine. Unfortunately, some healthy foods are high in histamine, including aged cheese, cured meats, fermented foods, alcohol, fish, shellfish, tomatoes, eggplant, and spinach. Other foods, such as strawberries, pineapple, citrus fruits, and chocolate can also trigger histamine reactions in sensitive individuals.

Did you know?

65% of the population is lactose intolerant, with as much as 90% in East Asian ancestry. However, cheese and yogurt are easier to tolerate since it goes through a fermentation process which breaks down the lactose in milk.

Inflammation

The mechanism of an acute inflammatory response is to help us heal from an injury or an infection, however, in modern times, inflammation has become chronic.

Chronic inflammation, which contributes to a shortened life, is caused by several factors, including:

• Smoking
• Excessive alcohol consumption
• Added sugars and artificial sweeteners
• Ultra-processed foods (UPFs)
• Consumption of red meat
• Stress
• Physical inactivity
• Obesity, which is associated with an unhealthy gut microbiota, often resulting from a less diverse and nutrient-poor diet.

While aging naturally leads to increased levels of inflammation, additional factors of chronic inflammation further accelerates the aging process. This contributes to the development of age-related diseases such as cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer's disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain cancers. In this way, chronic inflammation creates a feedback loop, promoting further cellular damage and aging.

There is also a strong association between inflammation and depression.

HormonesCopy Link

Cortisol

Discovered in the 1940s, cortisol, aka the "stress hormone," is essential for the body's response to stress. It helps control blood sugar levels, regulate metabolism, reduce inflammation, and assist with memory formulation.

However, chronically high levels of cortisol can lead to various health problems, including weight gain, high blood pressure, a weakened immune system, and increase blood sugar levels, contributing to insulin resistance.

Estrogen

Discovered in the early 1920s, estrogen is a group of hormones primarily produced in the ovaries in women and in smaller amounts by the testes in men. It is crucial for reproductive and sexual health, bone density, and cardiovascular health.

In women, estrogen regulates the menstrual cycle and affects the reproductive system. It also helps maintain bone density.

In men, estrogen is important for modulating libido, erectile function, and sperm production. Low levels of estrogen can lead to bone density loss and increased risk of fractures, while high levels can be linked to various health issues, including certain types of cancer.

Ghrelin

Discovered in 1999, ghrelin, often called the "hunger hormone," is produced mainly in the stomach. It stimulates appetite, increases food intake, and promotes fat storage. Ghrelin levels typically rise before meals (increased hunger) and fall after eating (reduced appetite). It also plays a role in regulating the distribution and rate of use of energy. It works in opposition to leptin, signaling the brain when the body needs more energy or food.

Insulin

What is Insulin?: Discovered in 1921, insulin, a hormone that controls blood sugar (glucose) and energy storage, rises after meals to promote nutrient uptake and fat storage, regardless of the macronutrient composition. However, protein also stimulates glucagon, a hormone, which helps balance blood sugar levels.

Fat Burning: Low insulin levels between meals and during sleep facilitate fat breakdown.

Type 2 Diabetes Risk: Refined carbohydrates, especially in ultra-processed foods, significantly raise insulin, promoting fat storage. Complex carbohydrates, however, contain fibre, which is found in vegetables, fruits, and legumes, and helps lower the glycemic impact of carbohydrates. Consuming large amounts of unrefined carbohydrates, such as pop/soda, pizza, pastries, or white pasta, can elevate baseline glucose levels for extended periods, especially when combined with poor sleep and stress (cortisol). Over time, chronically high levels of insulin can lead to insulin resistance, where cells become less responsive to insulin, increasing the risk of type 2 diabetes.

Lowering Insulin: Insulin levels can be reduced by consuming fats, dairy, fibre, vinegar, or citrus fruits, while avoiding late-night snacking, large dinners, or eating too quickly. The order of consuming vegetables and vinegar first, then proteins and fats second, and starchy and sugary carbohydrates last helps stabilize blood sugar.

Power of Exercise: Any kind of physical activity, including walking, is extremely effective for blood glucose management. Moderate to vigorous exercise (Zones 2 and 4 training) can significantly lower the blood glucose baseline while making the body more efficient at using insulin to control blood sugar and fat storage. This is achieved by raising insulin sensitivity over the following 24–48 hours. Exercise (movement) soaks glucose out of the bloodstream independent of insulin. High-intensity exercise has the added benefit of increasing sugar uptake into the muscles for energy use, even in the absence of insulin, along with physiological changes for better insulin sensitivity.

Appetite Regulation: Insulin, along with gut peptides from the stomach, pancreas, and small intestine, plays a crucial role in regulating appetite and promoting satiety.

Obesity: Insulin resistance and obesity often go hand-in-hand. However, if someone is physically fit but still at risk for pre-diabetes, high uric acid levels and stress may be contributing factors.

Monitoring Levels: Understanding and managing insulin levels and blood sugar (glucose) is critical to improving or maintaining overall metabolic health. Consider getting a continuous glucose monitor (CGM) to see how your current diet and activity levels affect your blood glucose levels.

Tip

Walking after a meal can improve glucose management, as eating raises insulin levels, and light exercise helps regulate them. Additionally, walking encourages muscles to absorb glucose for energy, whereas being sedentary may lead to excess glucose being stored as fat.

Irisin

Discovered in 2012, irisin is a hormone that is secreted during exercise, which converts white fat cells to brown fat cells. White fat cells stores body fat while brown fat cells burns body fat.

Leptin

Discovered in 1994, leptin is a hormone primarily produced by body fat. It helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger, which in turn helps to regulate body weight. Leptin signals the brain when the body has enough energy stored, thus reducing appetite and promoting energy expenditure. Low levels of leptin can lead to increased hunger and food intake, while high levels can contribute to leptin resistance, often seen in obesity, where the brain does not respond to leptin signals effectively.

Melatonin

Discovered in 1958, while not technically a hormone, melatonin is a crucial hormone-like substance produced by the pineal gland. It regulates the sleep-wake cycle and plays a role in circadian rhythms and overall sleep quality.

Testosterone

Discovered in 1935, testosterone is a natural steroid hormone that increases muscle mass by increasing protein synthesis.

Testosterone, the primary sex hormone in men, is 7–8 times more abundant in men and with greater production than in women, which explains why men are naturally more muscular and why it is more difficult for women to put on muscle mass. The primary sex hormone for women is estrogen.

Testosterone, especially for men, can be increased through weight lifting, consuming certain foods, and vitamin D.

Law of ThermodynamicsCopy Link

Calorie Dynamics: If you consume more calories than you burn, you will gain weight (bulking). If you burn more calories than you consume, you will lose weight (fat-loss phase). However, a big caveat: while a calorie is a calorie, the body is not a closed system. For example, if my maintenance calories are 2000 per day and I eat 6000 calories on one day, I'm less likely to gain weight than if I consistently ate 2500 calories daily over the course of a week. This is because the body has mechanisms, such as increased thermogenesis and glycogen storage, to buffer short-term caloric surpluses, whereas sustained overeating allows more time for excess calories to be stored as fat.

Other factors that influence the rate of caloric (energy) consumption include:

• Physical activity (intensity and duration)
• Chronic stress (high cortisol levels)
• Gut microbiota
• Hormones (e.g., insulin, thyroid, testosterone)
• Sleep quality

Weight Management: Calories definitely matter for weight management, whether you want to lose or gain weight. However, putting on muscle or burning fat is significantly influenced by the type and duration of exercise you perform and the quality of the foods you consume.

Exercise and Metabolism: Exercise increases caloric expenditure and metabolism, and what you eat and drink affects metabolic and hormonal secretions which may cause you to store fat instead of expend fat, and vice versa. This is why exercise and the type of foods and beverages you consume are important. Note that while exercise is an excellent way to prevent weight gain, your body will, however, want to eat more to return to its set point.

Tip

Walking for 15 to 30 minutes after a meal offers two key benefits: it helps regulate insulin by reducing blood sugar spikes and uses circulating glucose (blood sugar) for energy instead of storing it as fat. Movement allows your muscles to absorb glucose like a sponge and can help reduce the likelihood of fat storage.

To Maintain WeightCopy Link

To Lose WeightCopy Link

To Gain WeightCopy Link

Weight ControlCopy Link

Set Point Theory

Whether you're overweight or underweight for a long period of time, that weight is your set point—or more accurately, your "settling point." Your body's unique baseline weight ("settling point") is stubborn, and your brain will fight to return to it. For instance, if you lose 50 lbs over several months, your body will resist the change and attempt to regain the weight. Metabolic compensation also plays a role in maintaining your settling point. To reset your settling point, you must maintain the new weight for a prolonged period to allow for long-term physiological adaptation. This means maintaining a healthy lifestyle even after reaching your weight goal, as your body will naturally try to revert to its previous state. These physiological and hormonal changes to a new target weight can take at least several months to stabilize and become the new norm.

Fat-Loss Tips

Calorie Restriction: To comfortably maintain a daily caloric deficit, it is essential to prioritise nutrient-dense meals. This requires sticking to a focused diet.

Satiety: Fortunately, there are many ways of keeping satiated: Increase low-calorie, high-fibre sources such as vegetables, berries, and spices. Staying fully hydrated by drinking water, tea, and black coffee will keep appetites at bay. Consuming protein sources will also improve satiety.

Intermittent Fasting: Intermittent fasting is also a useful tool for fat loss through time-restricted fasting.

Slow and steady wins the race. Aesop (620–560 BC), The Tortoise and the Hare

Calorie Calculator

The calculator below will give your current basal metabolic rate (BMR) and an approximate number of calories to consume daily towards your goal weight.

Consider using the Macronutrient Calculator afterwards.

SSF Calorie Calculator

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*Exercise refers to 30–60 minutes of moderate to vigorous strength or cardio training. Metabolism, activity level, and exercise type can affect caloric outcomes.

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Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

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↑ To Gain Weight

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Understanding the Numbers

Calorie Calculator

This calculator utilizes the Mifflin-St Jeor equation, a reliable method for determining your BMR.

BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate)

The BMR is the number of calories you burn while at rest over a 24-hour period. This assumes no physical activity.

Total Daily Energy Expenditure (TDEE)

TDEE is calculated by multiplying your BMR by an activity level factor based on your workouts, reflecting the total calories burned in a day.

Maintenance = TDEE

Consuming calories equal to your TDEE helps you maintain your current weight.

Weight gain (TDEE + 500)

Adding 500 calories to your daily TDEE can lead to a weight gain of approximately one pound per week, mostly fat. Reducing by 250 calories allows for a gradual increase.

Weight loss (TDEE - 500)

Reducing your daily caloric intake by 500 calories from your TDEE can result in a weight loss of about one pound per week, mostly fat.

Did you know?

Under suitable nutritional and physical conditions, it takes approximately 3500 calories to burn off 1 lb of fat, which is a deficit of 500 calories per day for one week.

Adjusting Your Numbers

Note

Every time you gain or lose 5 lbs of body weight, use the Calorie Calculator to readjust your caloric intake. Your caloric requirements will change as your weight changes.

Diet Transitioning

When transitioning from a muscle-building phase to a fat-loss phase, or vice versa, adjust your calories gradually by 200 to 250 calories per week. This gradual change allows your body to adapt both psychologically and physiologically. Your weight will still change during this transition phase. Many people make the mistake of adjusting too quickly, which often proves counterproductive.

Burning Fat

To lose weight, consume less calories than you burn in a day, but not fewer than 1200 calories to avoid malnutrition and counterproductive results, unless you are fasting.

The fat-loss phase should be combined with regular exercise, unless you are undertaking calorie-restricted fasting.

If you are struggling to lose weight, please read the nutrition section, along with gut microbiome and fat-loss tips. Also, consider intermittent fasting.

Building Muscle

To gain weight, consume more calories than you burn in a day. If you are a "hardgainer," you are simply not eating enough. Consider adding more healthy fats, nuts and seeds, and whole grains to your diet.

Building muscle is only possible with regular weight training.

Author's Anecdote

Increasing muscle mass naturally is a slower process than losing body fat, because we can't build muscle as fast as we can put on or burn fat. Gaining more than 1 lb (0.45 kg) per week leads to unnecessary fat gains. Compared to the fat-loss phase, which can feel like a sprint, bulking is more like a marathon.

Macronutrients

To calculate how much of your daily calories could be allocated to carbs, protein, and fat, try the Macronutrient Calculator.

Food PyramidCopy Link

60% of the world's total calories today come from only 3 sources: wheat, maize (corn), and rice. This reliance on a limited number of crops marks a significant shift from the more diverse diets humans consumed in the past. Concerns about nutritional diversity and quality are becoming increasingly apparent.

SSF Food Pyramid

The suggested SSF Food Pyramid provides a common-sense, epidemiology- and clinically based approach to consuming whole foods (i.e., unprocessed foods) found in our natural environment, while restricting man-made, ultra-processed, antibiotic-laden, and refined foods.

Emphasizing a healthy omnivorous, flexitarian, plant-first approach, which has been shown in numerous clinical trials to lower all-cause mortality, places vegetables and fruits at the forefront, with animal sources as secondary. In addition to fermented dairy, this type of diet is crucially enriched with varied plant-based foods: legumes, whole grains, nuts, seeds, and healthy oils, while spices, herbs, and seasonings further enhance both health benefits and flavour.

This food pyramid serves as a flexible foundation for a whole food, plant-dominant diet inspired by the Mediterranean Diet and Nordic Diet. It can be personalized to suit individual needs and preferences, including ancestral eating patterns.

Author's Anecdote

I've settled on an ancestral-focused Mediterranean/Nordic-type diet for my personal diet, as it checks all the boxes for optimal health, fitness, longevity, and lifestyle enjoyment. In my early 20s, I was puzzled by high blood pressure despite being very active and following the government's nutrition guidelines. After researching and experimenting with several diets over the last 20+ years—including keto for one year, and spending a decade on the Paleo diet—I found that adapting to a Nordic diet, which aligns with my Slavic ancestry while incorporating elements of Mediterranean cuisine, worked best, particularly for optimizing a few key biomarkers. This type of diet has also been consistently proven in scientific literature and clinical trials for decades, despite the noise and confusion in news and social media.

SSF Food Pyramid Visual Example

Did you know?

Some of the healthiest parts of vegetables often end up discarded. Unpeeled carrots with their green tops are entirely edible, as are potatoes and their skins. Root vegetables like beetroot and radishes, along with their leaves, are also nutritious and edible. Save time and reduce waste!

The Health Correlation

The SSF Food Pyramid was designed based on a strong correlation between food composition and optimal health. This resembles some of the healthiest diets known to us: the Mediterranean, Okinawan, and Nordic diets.

We are treating people purely through pharmaceuticals or physical interventions, greatly to the profit of companies that manufacture pharmaceuticals and fund the research. Dr. Gabor Maté

Designed by Nature

Our species, Homo sapiens, appeared around 200,000 years ago, and one of the very first processed foods, bread, became widespread only after the First Agricultural Revolution 10,000 years ago.

The math is clear: we have only been eating bread for the last 5% of our existence. Taking it further, human-like species of the Homo genus came into existence over two million years ago, which means our diets were virtually always restricted to what was available to forage in the existing environment, namely plants and animals.

Hence, food found in nature was what our brains and bodies were ultimately designed for.

However, across generations, many populations have adapted to certain types of food. For instance, some Northern and Central Europeans have developed a tolerance for consuming milk. We have also adapted to eating legumes since the beginning of agricultural communities. Even bread, in its traditional form, was stone-ground and fermented using only a few natural ingredients. It was only a few hundred years ago that we started consuming increasingly refined bread, which even then, was still healthier than the ultra-refined white bread commonly found today. Taking it further, it's much healthier to consume freshly baked sourdough bread, which is fermented over a day using only flour, water, salt, and a sourdough starter, than to eat any kind of bread found in today's supermarket.

What we have not adapted to, and likely never will, is consuming refined and ultra-refined products filled with chemical perservatives and manufactured ingredients, devoid of the essential nutrients and fibre preserved in whole foods.

We now live in an environment filled with refrigerators, freezers, convenience stores, supermarkets, vending machines, fast food outlets, and an abundance of shelf-stable, packaged, canned, and jarred goods. This abundance and excess were never part of our natural diet. While humans are evolutionarily wired to seek sweet food sources, we are not designed to consume ultra-processed or refined foods, such as added sugars. This hyperpalatable ingredient, which only became widespread a little over 200 years ago, are especially potent when they are added to ultra-refined foods like pop/soda, gummies, granola bars, cakes, pastries, cookies, etc.

Fortunately, the abundance of food today is a double-edged sword. In the past, we ate only what was available, but now we have access to a greater variety of foods than even the kings of generations past. This gives us the power to choose from an incredibly wide range of dietary options to support optimal mental and physical health.

Instead of eating living things designed by nature, we started doing the designing. Mark Schatzker, The Dorito Effect

Why Does the SSF Food Pyramid Work?

By comparing the nutrient density per calorie of major food groups, we can plot the data on a graph.

Foods that are nutrient-dense contain micronutrients that are required by the body, so they are health-promoting. Foods that are lacking in nutrients are linked to inflammation, health risks, and disease. The overconsumption of calories are correlated with obesity and poor health.

Natural whole foods, especially fruits, vegetables, cooked legumes, and cooked whole grains, typically contain water. As a result, they have fewer overall calories than refined foods, since water contains no calories.

Recommendation

Consume double portions of vegetables for every portion of legumes or animal products in a meal, paired with a portion of whole grains. You can also reduce the animal-based portion further, for example, by combining half a portion of chicken with half a portion of chickpeas (garbanzo beans) or tofu, or half a portion of beef with half a portion of lentils or beans. Top with spices, herbs, and healthy oils. Ensure you consume at least two types of fruit a day along with a handful of nuts and seeds.

Food GroupsCopy Link

Eat food, not too much, mostly plants. Michael Pollan

This section lists some of the most accessible and nutrient-dense foods that are abundant in vitamins, minerals, essential fatty acids, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory properties. Also listed are healthy low-calorie beverages. calorie for calorie, these items will keep you more satiated than other types of foods.

Considerations

1. Activity Level: Athletes or highly active individuals might require additional protein and carbohydrates.
2. Health Conditions: Individuals with specific health conditions (e.g., lactose intolerance, celiac disease) may need to adjust dairy or grain consumption accordingly.
3. Personal Preferences: Cultural preferences and dietary restrictions (e.g., vegetarianism) can also influence dietary choices and should be considered.

Vegetables

Nutritional Score: 100%

Consume

Daily, most meals

Comprising leafy greens, cruciferous, and root plants, vegetables are a superfood group—especially after fermentation. They are packed with powerful phytonutrients, protecting heart, brain, and immune function. Vegetables offer one of the highest nutrient densities with very few calories. They are rich in fibre, vitamins (notably C and K), magnesium, potassium, and a wide range of polyphenols and antioxidants, many of which are rare or absent in animal-based foods. Be sure to rinse vegetables thoroughly under running water before consuming.

Price: $–$$

Calories

Calories: 10%

Nutrients

Nutrients: 100%

Phytonutrients

Phytonutrients: 100%

Fibre

Fibre: 90%

Carbohydrates

Carbs: 20%

Protein

Protein: 15%

Fat

Fat: 5%

Sugar

Sugar: 5%

Satiety

Satiety: 85%

Seafood, Poultry, Meat and Eggs

Nutritional Score: 85%

Consume

Priority #1: Seafood: 2–3x/week

Priority #2: Eggs: 2–4x/week

Priority #3: Poultry: 0–2x/week

Priority #4: Meat: 0–1x/week

A special powerhouse of nutrients from animal sources. These foods are the lowest in carbohydrates and highest in protein, while being moderate in fat and calories. Fatty fish (e.g. salmon, herring, trout, sardines, anchovies) and shellfish (e.g. oysters, clams, shrimp, crabs) should be consumed in moderation as primary sources throughout the week. Why the seafood bias? Seafood is rich in vitamin D and omega-3 fatty acids, and several fish, crustaceans, and mollusks contain 5–10 times more vitamin B12 than other animal sources and all plant sources. Additionally, fish provides heart-healthy polyunsaturated fats, including omega-3s, in contrast to other animal sources, which are predominantly composed of saturated fat. However, it's important to be mindful of our current state of unsustainable overfishing and its contribution to ecological damage and the depletion of marine ecosystems.

If more protein is required, especially for bodybuilders, work your way down the priority list. Eggs are packed with nutrients and make a perfectly sensible option. On days when animal sources are not included in a meal, legumes, nuts, and seeds would serve as the primary protein substitutes.

Animal sources provide nutrients that are low or absent in plant sources like vegetables, legumes, and whole grains. These nutrients include vitamin B12, vitamin D (from fatty fish), iron (from red meat), zinc (from shellfish), and omega-3 fatty acids (from fatty fish).

Price: $$–$$$$

Calories

Calories: 70%

Nutrients

Nutrients: 85%

Phytonutrients

Phytonutrients: 0%

Fibre

Fibre: 0%

Carbohydrates

Carbs: 5%

Protein

Protein: 90%

Fat

Fat: 80%

Sugar

Sugar: 5%

Satiety

Satiety: 95%

Avoid consuming animal sources, especially red meat, beyond the recommended portions, unless advised for muscle repair or recovery. Excessive intake of animal protein and saturated fats, especially from processed sources like most ham, bacon, and sausages, likely decreases longevity and increases the risk of chronic diseases. Studies indicate that overconsumption is not health-promoting, contributing to higher cardiovascular, colorectal cancer, and type 2 diabetes risks. When choosing red meat, opt for lean unprocessed options (e.g., organ meats, steaks, ground beef, lamb chops, pork tenderloin), as these are not associated with negative health outcomes when consumed in moderation. Minimally processed meat products (e.g., traditional, fresh, locally sourced in-house bratwurst of few ingredients) or high-quality cured meats such as Prosciutto di San Daniele/Toscano/Parma (Italy) and Jamón Ibérico (Spain) can also be consumed in moderation.

Fruits

Nutritional Score: 90%

Consume

For healthy individuals: Daily, in moderation

For individuals with health concerns: Only berries, apples, pears, pomegranate, kiwifruit, or avocado, daily, in moderation

Nature's candy, fruits offer natural sweetness balanced by fibre and numerous health benefits. Less sweet options like berries, avocados, and coconuts tend to be more nutritionally dense. Conversely, tropical fruits such as pineapple, bananas, guava, lychee, and mangoes, along with subtropical fruits such as watermelon, grapes, figs, and dates, tend to be higher in sugar and should thus be consumed in moderation. Citrus fruits such as oranges, lemon, lime, and grapefruit are high in vitamin C. Fruits are packed with vitamins, minerals, fibre, and antioxidants. It's the fruit juices that you need to avoid. Be sure to rinse fruits thoroughly under running water before consuming.

Price: $–$$$

Calories

Calories: 40%

Nutrients

Nutrients: 85%

Phytonutrients

Phytonutrients: 95%

Fibre

Fibre: 60%

Carbohydrates

Carbs: 60%

Protein

Protein: 10%

Fat

Fat: 5%

Sugar

Sugar: 70%

Satiety

Satiety: 70%

Legumes and Whole Grains

Nutritional Score: 95%

Consume

Daily, most meals

Excellent sources of protein, fibre, vitamins, and minerals, these food groups serve as valuable sides to the more complete and efficient vegetable-meat combination. However, legumes, with their higher protein, iron, and folate content compared to whole grains, can effectively substitute for animal-based foods. Legumes include lentils (brown, green, red), beans (black, white/navy, kidney, pinto, cannellini, etc.), soybeans (edamame, tofu), peas (chickpeas, green peas), and peanuts. Whole grains encompass quinoa, oats, brown rice, wheat, and barley, among many others. It is advisable to limit the consumption of white rice, white pasta, and white bread. If you desire to consume bread daily, choose varieties with only four ingredients that may also incorporate seeds and other whole grains, such as fermented whole meal sourdough, rye, pumpernickel, Rugbrød, or Ezekiel bread. High legume consumption is a common dietary practice among the world's longest-living populations. Dry beans, which are cheaper, must be soaked in water for several hours and then cooked before consuming, while canned beans are ready to eat and can be used directly, including the starchy liquid (called aquafaba from chickpeas). Grains also benefit from soaking and fermenting, which improve the nutritional quality, digestibility, and flavour (e.g., fermented porridge, kvass, dosa). Note that if you are introducing legumes into your diet, start with small amounts and gradually increase the quantity over time to allow your body to adjust.

Price: $

Calories

Calories: 50%

Nutrients

Nutrients: 80%

Phytonutrients

Phytonutrients: 80%

Fibre

Fibre: 80%

Carbohydrates

Carbs: 80%

Protein

Protein: 50%

Fat

Fat: 10%

Sugar

Sugar: 20%

Satiety

Satiety: 90%

Nuts and Seeds

Nutritional Score: 90%

Consume

Daily, in moderation, 25–55 grams per day

Wonderfully nutritious and an excellent source of protein and healthy fats, nuts and seeds are like the breast milk of plants. High in polyunsaturated fats, they contribute to optimal health, provide protective benefits, and make excellent meal companions. Nuts and seeds support heart health, brain function, and help reduce inflammation. Due to their high-calorie content, it's important to consume in moderation. Ideally, they should be unsalted and unsweetened, though they definitely can be lightly roasted.

Price: $$$

Calories

Calories: 90%

Nutrients

Nutrients: 90%

Phytonutrients

Phytonutrients: 70%

Fibre

Fibre: 70%

Carbohydrates

Carbs: 10%

Protein

Protein: 70%

Fat

Fat: 95%

Sugar

Sugar: 5%

Satiety

Satiety: 75%

Dairy

Nutritional Score: 80%

Consume

Daily, in moderation, small portions

Fermented dairy products like unpasteurized cheese, kefir, and yogurt can offer health benefits due to their probiotic content and nutrient profile. Milk and cream, on the other hand, are not fermented and contain higher levels of lactose (a sugar), and better restricted. Be mindful of portion sizes, as some dairy products, especially cheese and full-fat varieties, can be high in calories and saturated fat. Dairy, however, can be a good source of high-quality protein and essential nutrients like calcium, which support bone health and muscle function. Avoid the low-fat dairy and processed cheese.

Price: $$–$$$

Calories

Calories: 60%

Nutrients

Nutrients: 70%

Phytonutrients

Phytonutrients: 0%

Fibre

Fibre: 0%

Carbohydrates

Carbs: 30%

Protein

Protein: 60%

Fat

Fat: 70%

Sugar

Sugar: 40%

Satiety

Satiety: 80%

Oils and Fats

Nutritional Score: 70%

Consume

Daily, most meals, ~3 tablespoons per day

Extra virgin olive oil is the recommended choice for dressing or cooking due to its high monounsaturated fat content, exceptionally high polyphenol levels, minimal processing, and bioactive compounds. Avocado oil also makes a good substitute, however, with less polyphenols. They both can be expensive. If you already consume lots of fruits and vegetables but don't eat fish, in order to consume some ALA omega-3, you can cook with canola (rapeseed) oil or the superior camelina oil—if you can source it. Flaxseed oil is quite high in omega-3, but should only be used as a dressing. High-oleic sunflower or high-oleic safflower oil are also good options. Other seed oils can be good cooking oils due to their heart-healthy fatty acid profiles, as long as they are secondary to the above recommendations. Less frequently, virgin coconut oil, butter, or ghee can be used to achieve varied flavor and nutrient profiles. When selecting oils, ensure they are "cold-pressed" or "expeller-pressed," or that they state "(extra) virgin" on the bottle to confirm minimal refinement. Check the date of manufacture or location of production, as fresher, locally-sourced oils are better. Oils provide a range of health benefits and enhance the flavour of meals when used in moderation.

Price: $–$$$

Calories

Calories: 90%

Nutrients

Nutrients: 60%

Phytonutrients

Phytonutrients: 5%

Fibre

Fibre: 0%

Carbohydrates

Carbs: 0%

Protein

Protein: 0%

Fat

Fat: 100%

Sugar

Sugar: 0%

Satiety

Satiety: 60%

Food IndexCopy Link

• Vegetables
• Seafood
• Meat, Poultry, Eggs
• Fruits
• Legumes
• Whole Grains
• Nuts
• Seeds
• Dairy
• Oils and Fats

The following scores are ranked in the context of all food groups within the whole foods universe and are weighted according to the following balanced criteria, which constitute good health:

• 25%: Vitamins
• 20%: Minerals
• 20%: Quality Proteins
• 20%: Fibre
• 15%: Antioxidants

Notes: For the Oils and Fats breakdown, the protein and fibre criteria are replaced with a 40% weighting for "Healthy Fats."

Antioxidants includes polyphenols and other powerful non-vitamin, non-mineral antioxidants such as carotenoids and glutathione. They are also potent in herbs and spices.

Variety is Key

While broccoli and spinach, for example, rank high in overall score for nutrient density, other vegetables such as garlic (allicin, heart health, immune support), tomatoes (lycopene, vitamin C, potassium), eggplant (nasunin, fibre, brain health), and onions (quercetin, prebiotics, heart health) offer unique nutrients and health benefits that contribute towards an optimal diet.

Therefore, consuming only broccoli and spinach is not enough. Similarly, eating exclusively vegetables while neglecting other food groups, such as animal sources, can be suboptimal.

Vegetables

Author's Anecdote

It's shocking how many varieties of vegetables exist. It's also shocking to see how little get purchased at the checkout aisle.

Seafood

Be mindful that some seafood are high in purines, which can elevate uric acid levels in some populations. High uric acid levels can lead to gout (arthritis in the joints) and increase the risk of heart attacks. Among seafood, the highest in purines are anchovies, herring, mackerel, sardines, trout, mussels, scallops, cod, shrimp, and tuna. Uric acid levels can be checked through bloodwork.

Meat, Poultry, and Eggs

Limit processed meats such as sausage, ham, and bacon, and opt for whole cuts of meat, poultry, game meats, and seafood.

Grass-fed beef contains a higher ratio of omega-3 fatty acids compared to corn- and soy-fed cattle. Beef products include steak, roasts, ribs, ground beef, sausages, and beef jerky. Pork products include bacon, sausages, ribs, and ham. Other types of animal products include goat, lamb, and game meats such as venison (deer), rabbit, wild boar, pheasant, duck, elk, and bison, which are generally healthier due to their leanness.

Try to limit processed meat such as sausages, salami, ham, and bacon, and if you do consume them, ensure they are products of the simplest ingredients, or minimally processed. If consuming these meats, pair them with cruciferous vegetables like broccoli, cauliflower, kale, cabbage, and Brussels sprouts. These vegetables contain glucosinolates, which inhibit the carcinogenic effects of processed meat.

Organ meats and certain cuts of red meats, such as beef, pork, and lamb, along with venison, are highly nutritious but also particularly high in purines. These should be limited or avoided by individuals managing high uric acid levels.

Fruits

Tip

If your goal is to lose weight, raspberries make great additions since each raspberry contains only one calorie. They're also the most densely concentrated source of fibre and filled nutrients.

Legumes

Did you know?

Peas and peanuts are both legumes.

Whole Grains S

Did you know?

Millet, brown rice, and quinoa are considered intact grains, which means it doesn't go through any processing. Other intact grains include wheat berries and oat groats, which are nutritionally superior to their processed counterparts, but take longer to cook—and ironically, more expensive.

Tip

Soaking your grains in water overnight helps enhance nutrient absorption by breaking down anti-nutrients. Fermenting them by combining water with kefir, plain yogurt, cultured whey, or sourdough starter further improves digestion and bioabsorption. This method also helps the grains cook faster.

Nuts

Seeds

Dairy

Oils and Fats F

Herbs and Spices

• Allspice
• Anise
• Basil
• Bay Leaf
• Black Peppercorns
• Chervil
• Chives
• Clove
• Cardamom
• Cayenne Pepper
• Cilantro
• Cinnamon
• Coriander
• Chili Powder
• Chives
• Cumin
• Curry
• Dill
• Fennel
• Fenugreek
• Garlic
• Ginger
• Horseradish
• Juniper Berries
• Lavender
• Lemongrass
• Mace
• Marjoram
• Mint
• Mustard Powder
• Nutmeg
• Onion Powder
• Oregano
• Paprika
• Parsley
• Pepper
• Red Pepper Flakes
• Rosemary
• Saffron
• Sage
• Savory
• Star Anise
• Tarragon
• Thyme
• Turmeric (Curcumin)
• Vanilla Bean
• Wasabi

Tip

Turmeric, garlic, ginger, and cinnamon are exceptional spices due to their high levels of antioxidants and health-promoting phytochemicals.

Seasonings

• Fish Sauce
• Fresh Herbs (e.g., Parsley, Basil, Cilantro)
• Horseradish
• Hot Sauce
• Lemon/Lime Juice
• Mustard (Prepared or Dry)
• Pepper (Black, White, or other varieties)
• Salt (Kosher or Sea)
• Smoked Paprika
• Soy Sauce
• Vinegar
• Worcestershire Sauce

The listed spices, herbs, and seasonings are all very low in calories.

Condiments

• Apple Cider Vinegar
• Balsamic Vinegar
• Chimichurri
• Greek Yogurt (Plain) F
• Guacamole F
• Hummus
• Kimchi
• Miso
• Nut Butter F
• Pesto F
• Salsa
• Sauerkraut
• Sriracha
• Tahini F
• Tamari
• Tapenade F
• Tzatziki

Other

• Bee Pollen
• Cocoa
• Gelatin/Collagen Powder
• Matcha Powder
• Nutritional Yeast
• Protein Powder*
• Spirulina

* Note: Many protein powders contain added sugars or artificial sweeteners, which some studies suggest may affect gut microbiota. While protein powders can be convenient, consider instead whole food sources of protein such as nuts, seeds, plain Greek yogurt, peanut butter, tofu, tempeh, seitan, fish, eggs, or chicken, since they provide additional nutrients.

Tip

Use cocoa powder to make homemade hot chocolate. Only 20 calories are in 1 tablespoon. However, limit the milk and sugar.

Beverages*

1. Water
2. Herbal Tea
3. Tea
4. Black Coffee
5. Infused Water
6. Sparkling Water
7. Vegetable Juice (without added sugars)
8. Aloe Vera Juice (without added sugars)
9. Coconut Water

* Note: The beverages listed are virtually calorie-free.

Food SynergyCopy Link

Ensure your overall diet includes a diverse range of foods to provide a balance of nutrients.

Improving Taste and Health

Food combinations can make a difference for better or for worse. However, if we are already eating a healthy diet, other variables come into play for optimal food combinations, such as personalized nutrition, nutrient diversity, genetic predispositions, meal timing, tastiness, and bioabsorption.

As a simple example, a potato contains a long list of beneficial micronutrients, is high in starchy carbohydrates and is incredibly satiating, but it's bland to eat by itself. Butter is not satiating, is calorie-dense and nobody in their right mind would eat butter on its own.

But when you add butter to a potato, something magical happens. The combination improves palatability along with additional health benefits: butter contains various additional micronutrients, helps with the bioavailability of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, and its fat lowers the potato's high glycemic index. Adding a bit of sea salt and vinegar further improves both the palatability and health benefits.

Along the same line, the benefits of consuming fish may outweigh those of taking fish oil supplements. Whole fish provides other nutrients that work synergistically with omega-3s, potentially enhancing their effectiveness (selenium, vitamins D and B12, and specific proteins) compared to fish oil supplements alone.

However, you can also have too much of a good thing. Sticking to one food group means consuming too much of one thing and not enough of another. Variety allows the body to have a wide range of essential micronutrients without approaching levels of toxicity. It's crucial to have a variety of foods from every food group.

Taste the Rainbow

A great tip is to consume a colourful variety of foods, where different colours indicate various polyphenols and antioxidants that feed your gut microbiota. Taking advantage of a diverse array of colourful foods ensures a wide range of nutrients and compounds that can benefit overall health, support the immune system, and reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Some ideas include:

• Red: Tomatoes, strawberries, red peppers, red apples. These are rich in lycopene and anthocyanins, which support heart health and reduce inflammation.
• Orange: Carrots, sweet potatoes, oranges, pumpkins. These foods are high in beta-carotene, which is beneficial for vision and immune function.
• Yellow: Bananas, yellow peppers, corn, lemon, squash. These provide vitamin C, carotenoids, bioflavonoids, supporting skin health and immune function.
• Green: Spinach, broccoli, kale, cabbage, avocados, green tea. Rich in chlorophyll, fibre, vitamins, and minerals, including folate and iron, promoting detoxification and overall health.
• Blue: Blueberries, blue corn. Packed with anthocyanins and antioxidants, these help protect against oxidative stress and improve heart health and cognitive function.
• Purple: Eggplant, plums, purple cabbage, black grapes, purple potatoes, purple carrots. These contain anthocyanins, resveratrol and flavonoids, which have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties, and help with heart health.
• Brown: Whole grains, lentils, nuts, seeds, coffee, cocoa, cinnamon, mushrooms. These are excellent sources of fibre, vitamins, and minerals, supporting digestive health and heart health.
• Black: Black beans, blackberries, black rice, black olives. These foods are rich in antioxidants and fibre, aiding in digestion and providing cardiovascular benefits.

Enhancing Nutrient Absorption

Some vitamins and minerals are better absorbed with specific food combinations. For instance, the iron in spinach may not be fully utilized by your body without the right pairing. Here are some tips to maximize nutrient absorption.

• Probiotics with Prebiotics: Individuals who consume probiotics such as fermented sauerkraut and kimchi can better tolerate an increase in prebiotics, namely fibre. This combination creates a more diverse and balanced gut microbiota, leading to improved digestion, enhanced nutrient absorption, reduced inflammation, and overall better health and the prevention of chronic diseases.
• Soaking and Fermenting Grains: Soaking grains like oats overnight in water helps break down anti-nutrients, such as phytic acid. Adding a fermenting agent, such as kefir, cultured whey, plain yogurt, or sourdough starter, not only enhances digestibility and nutrient absorption but also provides additional nutrients, improves flavour, and reduces cooking time.
• Legumes with Grains: Combining legumes (e.g., beans, lentils) with grains (e.g., rice, wheat) provides a complete protein profile, as each compensates for the amino acids lacking in the other. For instance, legumes are typically low in methionine, an amino acid that is more abundant in whole grains, making them a balanced and complete protein when consumed together. This is how vegetarians are able to get complete proteins through their diet.
• Iron with Vitamin C: Consuming iron-rich plant foods (e.g., spinach, lentils, beans, tofu, dark chocolate) with vitamin C-rich foods (e.g., strawberries, citrus fruits, bell peppers, pumpkin seeds, broccoli) enhances iron absorption.
• Iron and Onions/Garlic: Garlic and onions contain sulfur compounds that can help increase the absorption of non-heme (plant-based) iron.
• Calcium with Vitamin D: Consuming calcium-rich foods (e.g., dairy, leafy greens, poppy seeds) with vitamin D (e.g., fatty fish, hard cheeses, fortified milk) improves calcium absorption.
• Magnesium with Vitamin D: Magnesium helps activate vitamin D, so pairing magnesium-rich foods (e.g., nuts, seeds) with vitamin D sources can enhance vitamin D's effectiveness. They can be consumed at any time of day.
• Zinc with Protein: Zinc is found in high-protein foods such as meat, seafood, legumes, nuts, seeds, and whole grains. The presence of protein in a meal can enhance zinc absorption.
• Healthy Fats and Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Pairing foods rich in vitamins A, D, E, and K (e.g., carrots, leafy greens, eggs, fatty fish) with healthy fats (e.g., olive oil, avocados) improves their absorption.
• Healthy Fats with Antioxidants: Dietary fat, paired with many antioxidants, helps absorption of important sources such as beta-carotene and lutein, found in leafy greens such as kale, spinach, and collard greens.
• Turmeric with Black Pepper: The piperine in black pepper enhances the bioavailability of curcumin, the active ingredient in turmeric, making it more effective as an anti-inflammatory agent. Curcumin is fat-soluble, so also pair with dietary fat.

Antioxidant Synergy

• Tomatoes with Olive Oil: The fat in olive oil helps the body absorb lycopene from tomatoes, which is beneficial for heart health and reducing inflammation.
• Green Tea with Lemon: Adding lemon to green tea increases the absorption of catechins, which are potent antioxidants with numerous health benefits.

Suboptimal Combinations

Conversely, even if you consume enough spinach for its iron benefits, you may not sufficiently absorb the iron due to suboptimal or less-than-ideal food combinations. Most of the time, though, don't sweat it. Just focus on maintaining a balanced diet, and you'll likely get the nutrients you need. The following information is mainly beneficial for dietary optimization and dispeling disinformation.

Phytic Acid vs. Minerals

Phytic acid (phytates) found in whole grains, legumes, and some nuts can bind to minerals like iron, zinc, and calcium, reducing their absorption. However, like lectins, phytates are of little concern when grains and legumes are pre-soaked and cooked, as these processes break down anti-nutrients and promote mineral bioabsorption.

Fermentation further enhances nutrient availability. For example, adding kefir to porridge: kefir's natural acidity and enzymes help break down phytic acid in grains, making minerals like iron, zinc, and magnesium more bioavailable. Other fermentation options include sourdough starter, cultured whey, plain yogurt, lemon juice, apple cider vinegar, or enjoying a side of sauerkraut or kimchi.

Lastly, nutrient absorption can also be improved by combining grains, legumes, and nuts with vitamin C-rich foods like bell peppers or citrus fruits, or sulfur-containing foods like garlic and onions. For non-heme iron (not from plants), meat and fish provide "meat factor" compounds that enhance iron's absorption when eaten alongside plant-based sources.

Iron and Zinc vs. Calcium and Tannins

Pairing iron-rich foods like red meat with calcium-rich dairy products can inhibit iron absorption. For example, the calcium in milk interferes with the body's ability to absorb iron and zinc. To reduce interference, consume milk or other calcium-rich foods at least 2 hours before or after an iron-rich meal.

Tannins in tea, coffee, and some wines can also inhibit the absorption of non-heme iron found in plant-based foods. Drinking tea, coffee, or wine at least 1–2 hours before or after a meal will help minimize this effect.

Fibre vs. Minerals

Excessive fibre can bind to minerals such as magnesium, calcium, zinc, and iron, reducing their absorption. However, with adequate nutrient intake and processes like pre-soaking or fermentation, the impact of fibre on mineral absorption is negligible.

Personalized Nutrition

The easiest way to personalize and optimize your health is to consider your family history by avoiding foods that contributed to their ailments or diseases, assess your current biometric, biomarker, and genetic readings for any risks, and incorporate more of the healthy foods your (great) grandparents ate.

While combining certain foods can enhance their health benefits through synergistic effects, considering ancestral dietary patterns may offer potential advantages based on genetic adaptations (nutrigenetics/nutrigenomics). Modern research emphasizes the importance of personalized nutrition, which takes into account genetic, metabolic, and lifestyle factors to tailor dietary recommendations.

Genetic Adaptations

Genetic testing and analysis can provide insights into individual responses to different foods and nutrients. These genetic variations may influence nutrient metabolism, food (in)tolerances, and dietary needs, potentially helping to optimize diet for health.

• Lactase Persistence: Populations with a long history of dairy consumption (e.g., Northern Europeans) are more likely to have lactase persistence, allowing them to digest lactose (e.g. milk) into adulthood.
• Amylase Gene Copy Number: Populations with a history of high-starch diets, such as some Asian, European, and African agricultural societies, have more copies of the amylase gene, improving their ability to digest starches such as potatoes, corn, wheat, and rice.
• Fatty Acid Desaturase (FADS): Some populations, particularly those with a history of plant-based diets low in animal fats (like traditional Indian diets), have adaptations in the genes. This allows for more efficient conversion of plant-based omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids into their longer-chain derivatives.
• Vitamin D Synthesis: Populations in northern latitudes have adaptations for more efficient vitamin D synthesis from limited sunlight exposure.
• Inuit Fat Metabolism: Arctic populations like the Inuit have genetic adaptations that allow them to more efficiently metabolize the high fat content of their traditional marine-based diet.

Ancestral Diets

While the Mediterranean/Nordic Diet is widely recommended for its health benefits, personalizing your diet to incorporate elements of your ancestral dietary patterns may offer additional benefits. I call these "Civilization Bonuses." This approach is based on the theory that your genes may be adapted to utilize certain traditional foods more efficiently. Aim to have at least 50% of your healthy food intake consist of foods that were commonly consumed during your grandparents' time.

For example, if you have Slavic heritage, you might consider incorporating traditional foods like shredded cabbage or sauerkraut alongside broccoli, pairing buckwheat kasha or barley with lentils, or combining plain Greek yogurt with kefir.

You could have more than one civ bonus if you have multiple cultural ancestors.

Civilization Bonuses

• Arctic/Inuit Diet: High in seal, whale, and fish, providing significant omega-3 fatty acids and adapted to extreme northern environments.
• Chinese Diet: Bok choy, tofu, jasmine rice, and fermented soybeans.
• Japanese Diet: Sushi, miso soup, tofu, and green tea.
• Korean Diet: Kimchi, bulgogi (marinated beef), sticky rice, and seaweed.
• Thai Diet: Jasmine rice, fish sauce, lemongrass, galangal, coconut milk.
• Vietnamese Diet: Jasmine rice, rice noodles, fish sauce, lemongrass.
• Indian Vegetarian Diet: Masoor dal (red lentils), chickpeas (garbanzo beans), basmati rice, spinach, mangoes, and turmeric.
• Nordic Diet: Rye bread, lingonberries, root vegetables (carrots, parsnips), salmon, and canola oil.
• German Diet: Rye bread, potatoes, pork sausages, beef, and sauerkraut.
• Slavic Diet: Rye bread, potatoes, cabbage, sauerkraut, and buckwheat.
• French Diet: Known for its emphasis on fresh, high-quality ingredients, moderate wine consumption, and importance of leisurely meals and portion control.
• Mediterranean Diet: Olive oil, sardines, tomatoes, and farro.
• Irish Diet: Potatoes, cabbage, oats, dairy products, and salmon.
• Middle Eastern Diet: Hummus, tabbouleh, falafel, pita bread, olive oil, cumin, coriander.
• African Diets: Vary by region but often include millet, yams, collard greens, and fermented foods like injera.
• West African Diet: Jollof rice, fufu, yams, plantains, peanuts, cassava.
• Caribbean Diet: Plantains, yams, ackee, saltfish, mango, papaya, rice, and beans.
• Pacific Islands Diet: Taro, sweet potatoes, pineapple, and fish, with limited meat consumption.
• South American Indigenous Diets: Quinoa, amaranth, black beans, and a variety of fruits such as papaya and guava.
• Mexican Diet: Corn, black beans, avocados, zucchini, tomatoes, and chili peppers as staples, with moderate amounts of chicken and fish.

Foods to LimitCopy Link

Processed vs. Ultra-Processed Foods

Processed foods differ from ultra-processed foods (UPFs), and some processed foods can be beneficial. Examples include sauerkraut, yogurt, kefir, unpasteurized cheese, homemade sourdough bread, red wine, and even coffee—all of which offer excellent health benefits. Ultra-processed foods, however, are designed to be low-cost and to maximize stimulation of the brain's reward centre. They often have nutrients, polyphenols, and fibre removed, and are then loaded with sugar, inexpensive low-quality fats, flavour enhancers, emulsifiers, preservatives, and additives. UPFs include items such as corn chips, puffed rice, bagels, chicken fingers, fish sticks, orange juice, and energy drinks.

Ultra-Processed Foods (UPFs)

Nutritional Score: 10%

Calories

Calories: 50%

Nutrients

Nutrients: 80%

Fibre

Fibre: 80%

Carbohydrates

Carbs: 80%

Protein

Protein: 50%

Fat

Fat: 10%

Sugar

Sugar: 20%

Satiety

Satiety: 30%

Ultra-processed foods, often referred to as junk foods, unfortunately form the foundation of the standard Western diet—what most people eat.

UPFs consist of sugary snacks, fast food, and sweetened beverages, all contributing to extreme sugar rushes followed by the inevitable "carb coma." These foods are low in nutrients and fibre, and high in salt, sugar, and fat. Such diets typically lack naturally occurring essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and fibre.

Foods that are commercialized, pre-prepared, refined, processed, and manufactured, i.e., packaged, are likely to be unhealthy, even when they try to make a health claim.

Mixed beverages are easily consumed and are packed with dense calories which adds up very quickly. By looking at the ingredients list on ultra-processed food packages, you will often see some form of sugar, wheat, corn, or soy combined with vegetable oils, along with several additives designed for preservation, texture, palatability, or colour.

This section contains common inflammatory empty-calorie foods and beverages that are fattening, disease-promoting, and thus, should be limited.

Did you know?

Sugars have no nutrients, which is why they are called "empty calories."

Note

Occasional indulgences are fine when it's not part of your regular diet or compromising your goals.

Tip

Don't keep junk food in your home! Eating junk food outside of the home limits temptations and can then be enjoyed more as a treat.

For comparison with healthy foods, here are a few unhealthy food profiles that are consistent across the junk food universe.

Pizza

Nutritional Score: 40%

You would actually get a similar nutritional profile with French fries.

High in low-quality carbs and calories, with fat added.

Calories

Calories: 95%

Nutrients

Nutrients: 20%

Fibre

Fibre: 15%

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates: 80%

Protein

Protein: 30%

Fat

Fat: 85%

Sugar

Sugar: 20%

Satiety

Satiety: 70%

Savoury Pastries

Nutritional Score: 30%

Sweet pastries are worse. Along with having a similar profile to savoury ones like bagels, they are also higher in the sugar category and therefore, higher in calories.

High in low-quality carbs and calories, with fat added.

Calories

Calories: 90%

Nutrients

Nutrients: 15%

Fibre

Fibre: 10%

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates: 85%

Protein

Protein: 15%

Fat

Fat: 80%

Sugar

Sugar: 10%

Satiety

Satiety: 40%

Milk Chocolate

Nutritional Score: 25%

Note that however, cocoa and dark chocolate (70% and higher) are very healthy. Cocoa is high in polyphenols and iron with only 12 calories for every tablespoon. So do enjoy a small bite of dark chocolate on a daily basis if you'd like!

Milk chocolate is high in added sugar and fat, making it a source of low-quality carbohydrates and excess calories.

Calories

Calories: 90%

Nutrients

Nutrients: 25%

Fibre

Fibre: 10%

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates: 70%

Protein

Protein: 5%

Fat

Fat: 80%

Sugar

Sugar: 95%

Satiety

Satiety: 30%

⚠️ Sugars

• Agave Nectar
• Cane Juice
• Dextrose
• Glucose-Fructose
• High-Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS)
• Honey*
• Jam
• Malt/Maltose
• Maltodextrin
• Sauces
• Sucrose
• Sugar
• Syrups
• Fructose
• Lactose
• Molasses
• Brown Sugar
• Coconut Sugar
• Date Sugar
• Invert Sugar
• Palm Sugar
• Turbinado Sugar

* While honey compositionally is not that much different from other sugars, honey does have health benefits. Consider going exclusively with honey as your sweetener. In moderation, of course.

Did you know?

There are about 4 grams of sugar in 1 teaspoon. There's almost 10 teaspoons of sugar in 1 can of Coca-Cola.

⚠️ Artificial Sweeteners

• Aspartame
• Neotame
• Rebiana (Truvia)
• Saccharin
• Sucralose (Splenda)
• Stevia
• Acesulfame Potassium (Ace-K)
• Cyclamate
• Monk Fruit (Luo Han Guo)
• Advantame
• Allulose
• Erythritol
• Xylitol
• Sorbitol
• Mannitol

Note

Despite having no calories, artificial sweeteners still negatively alter gut microbiota linking it to type 2 diabetes. Sweet properties are also addictive, contributing to appetite cravings and promoting poor dietary habits.

⚠️ Beverages

• Coolers
• Energy Drinks
• Fruit Juice
• Low-Fat Drinks
• Milkshakes
• Pop/Soda
• Sweetened Alcohol
• Sweetened Coffee
• Sweetened Tea
• Sports Drinks
• Flavored Water
• Diet Pop/Soda
• Iced Tea (Sweetened)
• Commercial Smoothies
• Pre-Mixed Cocktails
• Chocolate Milk

⚠️ Oils and Fats

• Cottonseed Oil
• Margarine
• Partially Hydrogenated Oil
• Trans Fats
• Vegetable Oil
• Palm Oil
• Blended Vegetable Oils
• Shortening
• Hydrogenated Lard

Did you know?

1 tbsp of butter has about 27% fewer calories than 1 can of Coca-Cola.

⚠️ Junk Food

• Bagels
• Biscuits
• Brownies
• Cake
• Candy
• Cereal (Sugary)
• Cheese Puffs
• Chocolate Bars
• Cookies
• Corn-Based Products
• Corn Chips
• Crackers
• Dips (e.g., Cheese Dip, Ranch)
• Doughnuts
• Ice Cream
• Instant Noodles
• French Fries
• Fried Chicken
• Frozen Yogurt (Sweetened)
• "Gluten-Free" Products
• Hamburgers (from fast food)
• Hot Dogs
• "Low-Fat" Products
• Muffins
• Nachos
• Pancakes
• Pasta (when refined)
• Pastries
• Popcorn (when buttered and salted)
• Potato Chips
• Pies
• Pizza (from fast food)
• Pretzels
• Sandwich Meats
• Sausages (cheap and processed)
• Snack Cakes
• Tater Tots
• Tacos (from fast food)
• Toaster Pastries
• Waffles
• White Bread (especially processed)

Note

The above processed and ultra-processed foods are a combination of sweet, salty or fried. 2/3 of the list are sugar and wheat flour products. All are very high in calories.

The good is mostly in the absence of the bad. Ennius (239–169 BC)

HydrationCopy Link

Importance of Hydration

Hydration primarily refers to water intake but also includes other fluids such as coffee, tea, broth, and other beverages.

Since the human body is composed of about 60% water, hydration impacts nearly every aspect of health and bodily function, including:

• Nutrient function, transport, and bioavailability.
• Regulation of body temperature.
• Regulation of blood pressure.
• Regulation of sleep cycles.
• Support of proper blood volume and circulation.
• Lubrication and cushioning of joints.
• Promotion of healthy digestion and food absorption, with reduced constipation from dehydration.
• Functioning of the kidneys and prevention of kidney stones.
• Detoxifies the blood and helps to flush waste and toxins from the body.
• Enhancement and stabilization of cognitive function and mood.
• Reduction of fatigue and prevents headaches.
• Immune system support.
• Management of weight.
• Improvement in skin health.
• Electrolyte balance.
• Enhancement of physical performance.

Did you know?

Drinking enough water helps improve several critical health biomarkers such as eGFR, uric acid levels, and blood pressure.

Hydration Recommendations

Tip

Keep a large water bottle near you wherever you go. It's extremely easy to underestimate daily water intake, especially when we're busy. Use a 2L, 3L or 4L water bottle for easier tracking. If it helps, add a bit of fresh lemon, lime, cucumber, mint, or basil.

Water Intake: Hydrating with 3.7L/day (about 15 cups) for men and 2.7L/day (about 11 cups) for women meet general hydration requirements from all fluid and food sources.

Alternatively, for ease of tracking, men should aim to consume 3 litres of water, and women 2.2 litres, because the remaining fluids would come from food.

Drink a full cup first thing in the morning due to overnight dehydration, then space your water intake by sipping or gulping throughout the day. Most of your water intake should occur during the morning and early afternoon. Increase intake on hot days and during exercise. Lower your water intake in the hours before bedtime.

Exercise Hydration: Before exercise and after a 30 minute exercise, drink at least 250 mL (1 cup) of water. Sip water during exercise if the intensity level is high or if the activity duration is longer than 30 minutes.

Hydration Guidelines:

• Sip water throughout the day, particularly during the first 10 hours, due to the kidney's circadian rhythm for optimal fluid balance and waste filtration.
• Limit water intake closer to bedtime to minimize nighttime bathroom trips and to promote uninterrupted sleep.
• Don't wait until you're thirsty. If you feel thirsty, you're already dehydrated.
• Increase your water intake in warmer climates.
• Increase your water intake on days you exercise, including before, during, and after exercise.
• Increase your water intake if consuming excess caffeine, salty foods, or alcohol.
• Drink plenty of water first thing in the morning due to overnight dehydration.
• Avoid overhydration. Listen to your body's cues.

Tip

If your urine is relatively clear (pale yellow), you're fully hydrated.

Electrolytes

Electrolytes are minerals in your blood and other bodily fluids that carry an electric charge. The main electrolytes include sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate, and bicarbonate. These are essential for various bodily functions, including maintaining proper hydration, muscle function, and pH balance.

Potassium can be found in many foods such as bananas, avocados, oranges, apricots, potatoes, white beans, lentils, salmon, clams, and leafy greens like spinach. Sodium (salt) is common in most meals, so most people get enough in their diet.

For most people with a balanced diet, electrolyte drinks are often unnecessary, expensive, and unhealthy due to sweeteners and additives. However, they can be beneficial during intense exercise or in hot weather. For a homemade alternative to commercial electrolyte drinks, mix 1/4 tsp of cream of tartar (actually a powder), a pinch of salt, and 1/2 tsp of vinegar or lemon juice in water. It won't taste good, but it can help replenish electrolytes without added sweeteners.

SupplementsCopy Link

Do You Need Supplements?

Supplementation requirements depend on your fitness goals, health optimization, and dietary choices.

Supplements are Overrated: In today's society, there is arguably too much emphasis on supplements, which cannot replace the profound effects of diet, exercise, and, in several cases, medicine. Recent research has shown that vitamin and mineral supplementation makes no significant difference in preventing disease or death, except for a slight benefit in cancer prevention (not cancer treatment). That being said, a multivitamin could be "insurance" and a few supplements can be beneficial in context.

When Supplements are Useful: High-performance athletes benefit greatly from supplements. Many people could benefit from vitamin D supplementation, and multivitamins may help cover potential nutritional deficiencies. While a personalized Mediterranean/Nordic Diet is designed to cover all nutritional requirements, other diets such as veganism would require vitamin B12 supplementation.

Synergestic Considerations: Be mindful that nutrients through whole foods likely have a synergistic effect where the combination of food promotes better health than taking nutrients individually through supplementation.

When supplements are taken strategically, they can offer benefits.

Always keep in mind, supplements can't replace, help, or fix a bad diet.

Author's Anecdote

Since switching to the Mediterranean/Nordic Diet, I've stopped taking protein powder. My health, leanness, and performance have actually improved with no muscle loss. I only take creatine for a performance boost, fish oil as "insurance," and vitamin D because I live in Canada.

Suggested Supplements

Daily Intake

Protein Powders

While some can get enough protein from food consumption alone, whey, brown rice, or pea protein powders, among other types, is a convenient source of high quality protein. Ideally, protein intake is spread evenly throughout meals. It is important to consume 25–30 grams of protein after anaerobic workouts such as weight training or high-intensity interval training to maximize muscle protein synthesis. If you don't do strength training, protein powders will not help you build muscle.

Many protein powders contain added sugars or artificial sweeteners, which some studies suggest may affect gut microbiota. While protein powders can be convenient, consider instead whole food sources of protein such as nuts, seeds, plain Greek yogurt, peanut butter, tofu, tempeh, seitan, fish, eggs, or chicken, since they provide additional nutrients.

Vitamin D3

Individuals who don't get enough sun or live in colder climates will greatly benefit from this essential micronutrient. Abundant in fish, Vitamin D helps the heart, improves performance and recovery, increases testosterone and lowers the risk of cancer and diabetes.

Did you know?

Vitamin D is actually a hormone.

Fish Oil/Algae Oil

Fish oil, found in fatty fish, contains the essential omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA. Fish oil is an anti-inflammatory and provides several benefits to the heart, brain, and liver. Additionally, it helps reduce anxiety and depression, and supports both weight loss and muscle building. For a more environmentally sustainable source of omega-3s, algae oil is a superior alternative and is increasingly available.

For Burning Fat

Caffeine

A couple of cups of black coffee a day was found to help improve exercise performance. Caffeine also helps blunt appetite and provide a small thermogenesis benefit for fat burning.

For Building Muscle

Creatine

Creatine, naturally found in the body, improves lifting performance and increases muscle mass during a bulk. It does not provide benefits for weight loss, however. Taking 3–5 g (1 tsp) once a day at any time, ideally post-workout with a meal, and not with caffeine, will saturate muscle creatine levels after four weeks. Continuing with the same daily amount will maintain elevated creatine levels. Alternatively, one can saturate muscle creatine levels in a week through a loading phase of 5 grams (1 tsp), four times a day for 5–7 days.

Buying Supplements

High quality supplements at great prices can be purchased from the suggested link below based on my own research.

Shop Supplements

Functional NutrientsCopy Link

At its core, food is nothing more than water, micronutrients, and macronutrients consisting of calories. Look at each type of food as a "package" that comes with its own level of water, vitamins, minerals, polyphenols, fibre, amino acids, and fatty acids. What sets food apart from supplements are the synergistic, bioactive, and bioavailable compounds, along with thousands of additional chemicals that we are only beginning to discover.

Antioxidants

Antioxidants—including polyphenols—are a stealthy biochemical task force: unseen, underappreciated, and often overlooked on food labels. They form they key part of "medicine" in the saying "food is medicine."

Take the humble plum. One medium plum is 30 calories, containing 87% water, 6 grams of sugar, some vitamin C, and a gram of fibre. What's more, it's packed with some important antioxidants. In a plum, there are anthocyanins, chlorogenic acid, neochlorogenic acid, quercetin, kaempferol, catechins, rutin, beta-carotene, zeaxanthin, and epicatechin. They all play a role in anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and protective functions for the skin, liver, eyes, heart, brain, and immune system.

Antioxidants protect the body from damage by free radicals. Free radicals are unstable molecules that can cause oxidative stress ("wear and tear"), harming our cellular structures, including DNA. This protective role reduces inflammation and helps reduce the risk of chronic diseases that come with aging such as heart disease, certain cancers, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Sources of Antioxidants: Berries, nuts, dark chocolate, spinach, and other fruits and vegetables. Other good sources include tea, whole grains, and legumes, and a variety of spices and herbs, such as turmeric, cumin, cinnamon, oregano, and basil.

Fibre

Research on dietary fibre and human health over the past five decades has shown that dietary fibre is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and colorectal cancer.

Fibre, often found in complex carbohydrates, is essential for maintaining digestive health. It helps reduce appetite and keeps you feeling fuller for longer.

Fibre enhances gastrointestinal health, decreases the risk of disease, lowers blood pressure, and improves cholesterol levels, including LDL cholesterol and ApoB, primarily due to its role in supporting a healthy gut microbiome.

Further, fibre has direct physiological benefits such as regulating bowel movements, preventing constipation, stabilizing blood sugar levels, lowering cholesterol, aiding in weight management, and promoting colon health. It is strongly associated with a reduced risk of chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes and heart disease. Remarkably, for every 5 grams of fibre consumed daily, the chances of surviving cancer increase by 30%. Long-term, every extra gram of fibre consumed daily was associated with a reduction in weight gain by 2 kg (4.4 lbs).

According to the World Health Organization, we should be consuming 25 grams of fibre per day from a variety of sources.

Sources of Fibre: Whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes.

Did you know?

Americans consume more protein than they need and not enough fibre.

Sodium

Sodium, commonly known as salt, is a mineral and electrolyte required by the body for maintaining fluid balance, nerve function, and muscle contraction. Sodium becomes especially harmful when the individual has existing high blood pressure (hypertension), which is often a consequence of a poor lifestyle. Proper sodium intake is essential for overall health, but excessive consumption can lead to negative health outcomes.

The more you sweat, the higher your sodium intake requirements are.

Cholesterol

HDL ("good") cholesterol is what we want, and not LDL ("bad") cholesterol. High LDL cholesterol are associated with poor blood cholesterol and cardiovascular risk, while higher HDL levels are protective and associated with better cardiovascular health. Despite the controversy surrounding cholesterol, it is not necessarily problematic when considered in context.

Some foods high in dietary cholesterol, such as eggs, can actually help improve blood cholesterol levels. This is because dietary cholesterol does not have the same impact on blood cholesterol as once believed.

Regular exercise and eating more fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and healthy fats (such as those found in nuts, seeds, and fish) will help improve blood cholesterol levels.

Causes of High LDL ("Bad") Cholesterol

• Diet: Consuming high amounts of saturated fats, trans fats, and refined carbohydrates, while consuming a low intake of healthy fats such as omega-3 fatty acids.
• Lifestyle: Lack of physical activity, smoking, obesity, and excessive alcohol consumption.
• Health Conditions: Diabetes, obesity, and metabolic syndrome.

Diets high in sugar and saturated fats increase the risk of heart disease by promoting LDL cholesterol, which contributes to atherosclerosis. Regular exercise helps mitigate these effects by lowering triglycerides and boosting HDL cholesterol. Although exercise can reduce LDL cholesterol, it is less effective at doing so compared to dietary changes.

Did you know?

In a study, an 88-year-old man who consumed 25 eggs a day for many years was found to have normal cholesterol levels.

Author's Anecdote

For a few years during my late 20s, I've consumed on average 6–8 eggs a day. From my bloodwork results, my arteries were not being clogged. I also ate a lot of vegetables and fruits. Dietary context matters.

MicronutrientsCopy Link

Micronutrients include vitamins, minerals (calcium, iron, zinc, and magnesium), and organic acids such as citric acid. Each micronutrient contributes to our body's functioning, repair, and growth.

For instance, vitamin A helps with immunity and vision. This vitamin is abundant in carrots and sweet potatoes. Vitamin A is also fat-soluble, which means the body can only absorb the micronutrient when ingested with dietary fat.

Vitamins

Vitamins are essential for energy production, immune function, blood clotting, and other roles. Each vitamin has specific functions; for example, vitamin D is essential for calcium absorption and bone health, while vitamin C is necessary for the growth and repair of tissues.

Most vitamins consumed through dietary means can last for days or weeks in the body. However, water-soluble vitamins like vitamin C and the B-complex vitamins only last for a few hours to a few days and require regular intake. Vitamin D, which is fat-soluble, can be stored in the body for several months, but regular intake is still important to maintain adequate levels.

Sources: Fruits, vegetables, meats, and dairy products.

Below are the most common vitamin deficiencies and the best natural sources to address them. Sources in italics are disproportionaly high in a particular vitamin.

• Vitamin D: Sunlight exposure, fatty fish (salmon, mackerel*, sardines), beef liver, egg yolks, cheese
• Vitamin E: Sunflower seeds, almonds, hazelnuts, pine nuts, avocado
• Vitamin B12: Shellfish (clams, oysters), liver, fatty fish (mackerel*), meat, dairy products, eggs
• Vitamin B9 (Folate): Beef liver, leafy vegetables (spinach, kale, Brussels sprouts), asparagus, legumes (peas, beans, lentils), beetroot, avocado
• Vitamin A: Beef liver, sweet potatoes, carrots, spinach, kale
• Vitamin K: Dried herbs (basil, thyme, parsley), kale, leafy greens (via collard, mustard, turnip), spinach, Brussels sprouts

* Mackerel contains high mercury content, along with tuna, halibut, cod, and swordfish. Restrict consumption.

Minerals

Minerals such as calcium, potassium, and iron are crucial for maintaining healthy bones, proper nerve function, muscle contraction, cardiovascular health, and more. Iron is vital for the transport of oxygen in the blood, calcium is essential for bone and teeth health, and potassium helps to regulate blood pressure.

Iron and calcium are stored in the body for long periods, whereas electrolytes like potassium and sodium (salt) need to be replenished regularly.

Sources: Dairy products, fish, meat, legumes, nuts, fruits, and vegetables.

Below are the most common mineral deficiencies and the best natural sources to address them. Sources in italics are disproportionaly high in a particular mineral.

• Iron: Red meat (especially beef liver), oysters, pumpkin seeds, spinach, legumes (lentils, beans), cocoa
• Calcium: Poppy seeds, sardines (with bones), cheese, yogurt, milk, leafy greens (kale, collard greens, broccoli), almonds
• Potassium: Apricots, beans, potatoes, squash, and leafy greens
• Magnesium: Pumpkin seeds, nuts (almonds, cashews), spinach, legumes (beans), avocados, brown rice
• Zinc: Shellfish (oysters, crabs), seeds (pumpkin, hemp), beef/red meat, nuts, beans
• Iodine: Seaweed (nori, dulse, wakame, kombu), fish (cod, tuna), shrimp, eggs, dairy products

Did you know?

What often gets overlooked about calcium is that regularly performing load-bearing exercises, such as stair climbing and squats, is arguably more critical for developing strong, healthy bones. Calcium alone is not sufficient.

Salt

Processed and ultra-processed foods contain a lot of sodium chloride (salt), often putting us beyond the daily recommended dosage. The high intake of sodium in conjunction with unhealthy foods is a primary driver of high blood pressure and other metabolic issues.

MacronutrientsCopy Link

Macronutrient Wars

Carbs, protein, and fat have all been both praised and demonized, but the reality is more nuanced. Avoiding carbohydrates may lower the risk of diabetes by reducing blood sugar spikes, but it can also reduce physical performance, deprive the body of fibre and phytonutrients, and increase saturated fat intake, compromising overall health and raising the risk of cardiovascular disease.

Macronutrient Quality

All three macronutrients—carbohydrates, proteins, and fats—serve important functions, and each varies in quality.

Carbohydrates: Can be simple or complex, nutrient-rich or nutrient-poor, and composed of calorie-dense or diluted sources. Complex carbohydrates are generally considered the highest quality because they are more nutrient-dense and provide longer-lasting energy.

Proteins: Quality depends on the presence of all nine essential amino acids in adequate amounts, along with an additional 11 non-essential amino acids for optimal health. While many foods contain a variety of amino acids, the so-called "complete" proteins, which contain all essential amino acids in sufficient quantity, are crucial for proper bodily function. However, high protein intake is also associated with increased mortality risk in those under age 65. Excessive protein intake also doubles the risk of diabetes. Consuming protein from animal sources, even among healthy populations, may still increase the risk of heart disease.

Fats: Can be saturated, polyunsaturated, or monounsaturated, and may include essential fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6, which are only found in polyunsaturated fat sources. Monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats, especially with omega-3 fatty acids, are preferred for their overall protective and heart health benefits. Saturated fat intake, particularly from processed and high-fat animal-based foods, should be limited due to its association with negative health outcomes in numerous clinical studies.

Quality foods contain high-quality macronutrients.

Carbohydrates

4 calories per gram.

The Good

Energy: Carbohydrates make up a significant portion of the food universe, providing essential nutrients, fibre, and energy for the body. They are particularly valuable for their role in exercise performance, largely due to their role in replenishing muscle glycogen, and overall health. Carbs are also the body's preferred source of energy other than alcohol, serving as a critical fuel source, especially for both anaerobic and long-duration exercise.

Complex Carbs: Complex carbohydrates, in contrast to refined carbohydrates, are high-quality sources because they are nutrient-dense and provide long-lasting energy. For example, whole grains like oats, brown rice, barley, and quinoa are beneficial, while refined grains such as white bread, white rice, and pastries are not. Plant sources such as vegetables, fruits, and legumes are rich in vitamins and fibre, and provide the necessary nutrients and support digestive health.

Fibre: Fibre provides additional health benefits. For example, oats and barley contain beta-glucan, a type of soluble fibre that boosts the immune system, improves cholesterol levels, including lowering LDL cholesterol and ApoB.

Protective Role: Vegetables and fruits have shown protective effects against various aging-related diseases such as cancer and type 2 diabetes, with the strongest and most consistent evidence for all-cause mortality and heart disease prevention.

Starches: Starchy complex carbohydrate sources (in contrast to their refined versions) such as potatoes, quinoa, buckwheat, corn, and brown rice are excellent for replenishing muscle glycogen stores, which are depleted during strenuous exercise. They are also high in resistant starch, particularly potatoes, which function similarly to fibre, supporting gut health, blood sugar control, and enhanced insulin sensitivity. However, while these foods can cause rises in blood sugar and insulin, the effects can vary widely between individuals, so moderation is advisable unless monitored through a continuous glucose monitor (CGM).

Did you know?

Quinoa is special among whole grains for having a complete amino acid profile, making it a nutritionally complete protein source. This is uncommon for plant-based foods.

Did you know?

Potatoes and sweet potatoes are from separate families. Potatoes are tubers, similar to yams and cassava, while sweet potatoes are storage roots, similar to butternut squash and pumpkins.

High-Carb or Low-Carb?

The confusion and perception of high-carbohydrate versus low-carbohydrate diets often depends on context.

When "high-carb" is used negatively, it typically refers to diets rich in ultra-processed, high-calorie, simple-carbohydrate foods commonly found in the standard American diet, such as chips, fries, sodas, burgers, pizza, and hot dogs. These foods are often high in refined carbohydrates and added sugars. For example, a can of pop/soda contains about 10 teaspoons of added sugar.

In contrast, a positive high-carb diet usually refers to a whole, plant-based eating pattern rich in complex carbohydrates, including plenty of low-calorie fibre from fruits, vegetables, and higher-calorie, nutrient-dense sources like legumes and whole grains.

A proper "low-carb" diet generally refers to eating patterns that limit carbohydrate intake, often to less than 26% of total daily calories. These diets typically include non-starchy vegetables like leafy greens and cruciferous vegetables, moderate amounts of protein (often from animal sources), and higher proportions of dietary fat. Such diets include the ketogenic and some paleo diets.

Did you know?

Fibre is a carbohydrate.

The Bad

Ultra-Processed: While carbohydrates are essential, refined (simple) carbohydrates can have negative effects on health. Refined sources such as sugar-, wheat-, soy-, and corn-based products can induce cravings, leading to overeating, body fat accumulation, cardiovascular disease, including higher LDL ("bad") cholesterol and higher triglycerides, while lowering HDL ("good") cholesterol.

Overconsumption of refined carbohydrates in combination with low-quality fats are driving forces behind the obesity epidemic.

Did you know?

7 slices of whole wheat bread contain the same amount of dietary fibre as 1 avocado or 2 pears.

Say No to Smoothies

The blender can be a useful tool, but caution is advised when juicing or making smoothies with fruit. Even if you consume fruit at the same rate in smoothie form as you would whole, the smoothie will still have a greater impact on blood sugar levels. Blending breaks down fiber, which increases the absorption and speeds up the digestion of sugars. In liquefied form, it's also easier for the stomach to process, leading to a quicker release of glucose into the bloodstream. In this case, the most effective tool for managing blood sugar is your mouth.

Refined? Not Fine

Go for whole grains. While refined grains and whole grains may start from the same ingredient, they have very different effects. Oat groats are low on the glycemic index, while instant oats will raise your blood sugar. In between, you have oat groats (superior), steel-cut oats (good) and rolled oats (okay for some). Soaking and fermenting grains can also improve digestibility and help regulate blood sugar. Refined flour causes blood sugar spikes, whereas whole grains, with their fibre and nutrients, generate fullness by slowing blood sugar release. This helps reduce food intake by keeping you full longer. There's an inverse relationship between refined and whole grains: whole grains lower the risk of diabetes, heart disease, and stroke, while refined grains increase it.

Did you know?

Refined white flour has about 5% of the vitamin E found in whole wheat flour.

Wheat, Corn, Rice, and Potatoes

Wheat, maize (corn), and rice makes up 50% of the world's caloric intake.

Grains should be a supporting role rather than the main course. Like legumes, they are more nutritionally complementary wehn paired with the more nutritionally dense plant and animal sources. Notably, corn and wheat are common sources of food intolerances.

Rice: While rice is considered a neutral starchy grain due to its lack of inflammatory properties, it provides little nutritional value compared to other whole grains and is often unsuitable for diabetics. There are more than a dozen whole grains that offer superior nutritional value compared to the common sources of corn, bread, rice, and pasta. Examples include quinoa, buckwheat, barley, oats, rye, amaranth, and millet. They can also be consumed as flakes rather than as whole grains.

Potatoes: Potatoes are nutritionally complex: a nutrient-rich food that promotes satiety yet can be problematic for some populations by elevating GI levels and contributing to weight gain. The key is in the preparation: baking or boiling is far better than frying or mashing, and it's best to go light on oil or butter. Sweet potatoes, while not technically part of potatoes' nightshade family, are often a better choice for their lower GI, higher fibre, and more vitamin A. Butternut squash can also be a formidable substitute.

Pasta and Noodles: The healthier type of pasta is made from whole durum wheat, which provides more nutrients and fiber compared to refined semolina or egg noodle pasta. Udon and rice noodles are typically lower in nutrients and fiber, with rice noodles being gluten-free but less nutritionally dense.

Source of Fibre: More fibre per calorie can be obtained from vegetables and fruits such as leafy greens, avocados, bell peppers, carrots, pears, apples, and other fruits and berries. Beans, lentils and other legumes are also high in fibre, on par with whole grains. In addition, nuts and seeds also contribute to fibre intake.

Bread: If you don't have food intolerances and desire to have bread, consider consuming a slice or two of homemade (4-ingredient) rye, whole meal sourdough, Rugbrød, or Ezekiel bread as a supplement to your meals.

Did you know?

Wheat, corn, and rice are grains. A potato is a vegetable, while quinoa and buckwheat are pseudocereals. However, they're all considered starchy carbohydrate sources. Confusing, right?

Soy

There have been concerns about estrogen in soy products, such as edamame, tofu, tempeh, miso, and other soy foods. These concerns stem from the presence of phytoestrogens, specifically isoflavones, which are plant compounds that can mimic estrogen in the body. However, research shows that these phytoestrogens do not have the same effects as human estrogen, so they do not affect testosterone or estrogen levels in men. In human studies, moderate consumption of soy products (2–3 servings per day) is considered safe and provides health benefits. However, more research is needed to understand its relationship with breast cancer in women.

Lectins

Lectins are found in beans, lentils, peanuts, peas, soybeans, whole grains, and some vegetables like tomatoes and potatoes, which are also rich in essential nutrients, fibre, and antioxidants. Raw or improperly cooked foods high in lectins can cause digestive issues and may interfere with nutrient absorption. However, proper cooking methods, such as boiling, soaking, and fermenting, can remove almost all lectin content and make these foods safe to consume. In the case of legumes and whole grains, they should be soft to chew on. Any dangers of lectins have been overblown. Obviously, lectins pose little concern, considering the world's longest-living populations consume large quantities of these types of foods.

Gluten

Gluten is found in wheat, barley, and rye, along with its derivative products. Contrary to popular belief, gluten isn't harmful to health. However, it is significantly harmful to 1% of the global population who suffers from Celiac disease. There are individuals who have non-celiac gluten sensitivity who may be affected by these grains as well.

Glucose Effects

Food	Glycemic Index (GI)
High GI (70 or more)
White Rice (short-grain)	89
Cornflakes	81
Instant Oatmeal	81
Potatoes (boiled)1	78
Watermelon	76
White Bread	75
White Rice (long-grain)2	73
Pizza	70
Medium GI (56-69)
Whole Wheat Bread	69
Brown Rice	68
Sweet Potatoes	63
Couscous	65
Sugar (Sucrose)	65
Corn on the Cob	56
White (Flour) Pasta	56
Low GI (55 or less)
Oats (rolled)	55
Quinoa	55
Sourdough Bread	54
Buckwheat	53
Blueberries	53
Durum Wheat Pasta	47
Barley	28
Apples	36
Greek Yogurt (plain)	35
Lentils	32
Chickpeas (garbanzo beans)	28
Raspberries	25
1, 2 Potatoes and white rice can raise sugar levels for some populations due to varying glycemic responses influenced by ethnic and genetic factors.

Glycemic Index: The glycemic index (GI) measures how quickly carbohydrates in food raise blood sugar levels. As a rule of thumb, the more processed a food source is, particularly for whole grains, the higher the GI. While the GI can be useful for understanding the impact of certain foods on blood glucose, it has limitations. GI does not account for portion sizes or nutritional value and can vary based on food preparation and individual responses. Glycemic load is a better measure.

Glycemic Load: The glycemic load of a meal considers both the quality and quantity of carbohydrates. For example, two slices of pizza might cause a more moderate blood sugar rise and return to baseline, whereas six slices can cause a more significant spike in glucose levels, potentially keeping levels elevated for several hours—especially when combined with poor sleep or stress, possibly lasting up to 24 hours. In other words, the difference between pasta as a small side and as a main course can be the difference between stable blood sugar and an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Especially if the pasta is made from white flour rather than whole durum wheat or semolina.

"Second Meal Effect": When you consume a large meal rich in unrefined (whole) carbohydrates and fat, it has two main effects on your body, a double-edged sword. First, it slows digestion, as the combination of these nutrients takes longer to break down, which is generally beneficial for providing sustained energy and reducing hunger. Second, it causes extended blood glucose elevation, where your blood sugar levels remain higher than usual for a prolonged period, potentially lasting into your sleep hours. This extended elevation is often considered a drawback, as it may impact sleep quality and metabolic health.

"Dawn Effect": While you sleep, your metabolism and insulin activity slow down, which can delay the reduction of blood glucose levels. Some people experience the “dawn effect,” where early morning hormones like cortisol and growth hormone cause a rise in blood glucose levels, making overnight glucose control more challenging, especially if stress or poor sleep is involved. To counteract this, consider avoiding high-carb or sugary foods in the evening, engaging in light physical activity, and managing stress and sleep.

The overall meal composition (adding protein, fat, or fibre) can lower the glycemic response.

Sugary foods without fibre and refined carbohydrates such as bread can raise sugar levels. Common culprits include:

• Sweets and candies
• Sugary beverages (pop/soda, fruit juice)
• White bread, pastries, and baked goods
• Refined (white) pasta
• White rice*
• Potatoes*
• Breakfast cereals with added sugar
• Processed snacks (crackers, chips)
• Fruits high in sugar (grapes, bananas, cherries, mangoes)

* White rice and potatoes can significantly affect GI for some populations due to varying glycemic responses influenced by ethnic and genetic factors.

Note

Continuous glucose monitors (CGMs) may reveal that individuals can have different blood sugar responses to various foods, such as rice or potatoes. These responses can vary significantly even within populations. While some research suggests potential benefits in considering ancestral dietary patterns, personalized nutrition should be based on individual metabolic responses and overall health factors.

Proteins

4 calories per gram.

The Good

Satiety: Protein is considered the most satiating macronutrient and is important for weight management.

Building Blocks: Proteins are the building blocks for muscle and is essential to sustain life.

Amino Acids: Not all proteins are created equal. Proteins from various food sources are composed of different amino acid profiles, nine of which are essential. The more complete the amino acid profile, the higher the quality of the protein source. However, this doesn't matter in the context of a healthy diet. For example, legumes and whole grains have "incomplete" amino acid profiles, specifically lysine in whole grains and methionine in legumes, but when consumed within a 24-hour period, they provide a complete amino acid profile.

Protein Sources: Generally, animal sources such as fish, eggs, beef, and cheese contain complete amino acid profiles, while plant-based sources have variable amino acid profiles. By consuming a greater variety of plant-based sources, such as a combination of whole grains, seeds, legumes, and vegetables, you can easily meet the daily requirements for all nine essential amino acids.

The Bad

Excess Intake: We do not need to consume as much protein as we think, and would likely be better off consuming less protein. However, we do need enough to sustain life, maintain lean mass, support muscle repair from workouts, and to recover from injuries.

Shortened Lifespan: Some research suggests that excessive intake of certain amino acids, particularly methionine, abundant in red meat, egg whites, and fish, and the BCAA leucine, might affect longevity and potentially contribute to chronic diseases. Restricting methionine may extend lifespan and reduce the risk of aging-related diseases in animal models by lowering oxidative stress and inflammation. High leucine intake, particularly from whey and soy protein powders, may increase insulin resistance and contribute to metabolic issues. The idea is that while methionine and leucine, along with IGF-1, contribute to muscle growth, they also share the same pathways associated with aging. In other words, you may accelerate both muscle growth and aging. However, more studies are needed to confirm these effects in humans.

Heart Health Risks: Even among people who are initially free from common cardiovascular risk factors (like high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and diabetes), consuming animal protein may still be associated with a higher risk of developing heart disease.

Poor Fuel: Proteins are also poor fuels for energy.

Author's Anecdote

I've experimented with lowering protein intake as recommended, along with protein restriction during a fasting-mimicking diet (just under 20 grams per day for four days). To my surprise, shortly after the FMD, my lifting performance improved with no perceivable loss of muscle. My personal experience seems to support the recent research that we don't need as much protein as we think for muscle growth and maintenance. However, we do need enough.

Fats

9 calories per gram.

Fatty Acid Profiles

Saturated Fats and Trans Fats

• Stearic acid: Found in animal fats and cocoa butter. Considered neutral in its effect on cholesterol levels.
• Lauric acid: Predominantly found in coconut oil. Raises both LDL ("bad") and HDL ("good") cholesterol levels.
• Myristic acid: Found in butter and coconut oil. Increases LDL cholesterol more significantly than other saturated fats.
• Palmitic acid: Common in palm oil, butter, ghee, and meat. Known to raise LDL cholesterol and may contribute to heart disease.
• Trans fatty acids: Found in partially hydrogenated oils (e.g., some margarines and processed foods). Increases LDL cholesterol while lowering HDL cholesterol, increasing the risk of heart disease.

Monounsaturated Fats

• Oleic acid: The primary fatty acid in olive oil, avocado oil, canola oil, and high-oleic sunflower oil (not shown). Helps lower LDL cholesterol and maintain HDL cholesterol, supporting heart health.
• Palmitoleic acid: Found in macadamia nut oil and sea buckthorn oil. May have anti-inflammatory properties and support lipid metabolism.

Polyunsaturated Fats

• Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA): An omega-3 fatty acid found in flaxseed, chia seeds, and camelina oil. Converted in the body to EPA and DHA, beneficial for heart and brain health.
• Linoleic acid: An omega-6 fatty acid found in vegetable oils like sunflower, safflower, and corn oil. Essential for cell structure and function but should be balanced with omega-3 intake to avoid pathway imbalance and inhibition of anti-inflammatory effects.

The Good

Nutrients: Most foods that are naturally high in fat, such as fish, beef, pork, nuts, avocados, and coconuts, contain an abundance of vitamins and minerals. They also provide essential fatty acids required for body functioning and health.

Body Fuel: Dietary fat is an excellent source of body fuel and can contribute to weight loss when consumed in moderation as part of a balanced diet.

Did you know?

While vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, vitamins B and C are water-soluble. The former, you consume with fatty foods, the latter, you consume with water.

Monounsaturated Fats: Monounsaturated fats, particularly from sources like extra virgin olive oil, canola (rapeseed) oil, avocados, nuts, and seeds are generally considered health-promoting. They contribute to heart health, blood sugar control, and have anti-inflammatry properties.

Polyunsaturated Fats: Found in fish, nuts, seeds, and seed oils like canola (rapeseed), flaxseed, camelina, sunflower, and safflower oils, polyunsaturated fats are—contrary to popular belief—essential and promote health in several ways. They help lower LDL cholesterol, reduce the risk of cardiovascular events, and improve blood glucose control. Omega-6 polyunsaturated fats, particularly linoleic acid, are more strongly associated with reduced all-cause mortality than even monounsaturated fats. However, tropical oils like palm oil have less favorable health outcomes compared to seed oils.

Omega-3 and Omega-6: Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are essential because our bodies cannot produce them on their own, unlike other fatty acids. Omega-3, in particular EPA and DHA, are beneficial for brain and heart health. Seafood contains a higher proportion of polyunsaturated fats compared to eggs, poultry, and meats, which are higher in saturated fats. However, it's worth noting that eggs from chickens fed a diet rich in omega-3s will have more polyunsaturated fats, and grass-fed beef tends to have a better ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fats compared to grain-fed beef.

ALA Omega-3: While omega-3 fatty acids are known for their anti-inflammatory benefits, not all omega-3s are created equal. Walnuts and ground flaxseed are rich in ALA omega-3, but the benefits can be somewhat misleading. The body needs to convert ALA to EPA and DHA, a process that is often inefficient, with only a small portion of ALA typically being converted. EPA and DHA, the forms of omega-3 most readily used by the body, are found primarily in seafood. Nonetheless, ALA intake still supports heart health by reducing inflammation, lowering blood pressure, and improving cholesterol levels.

Saturated Fats: Saturated fats, found in eggs, butter, coconut oil, and especially from animal sources should be consumed in moderation. While these foods can be part of a healthy diet, the overall balance of fats and total caloric intake are important considerations for health.

Saturated Fats in Context: While saturated fats have been controversial, they should be looked at in context of overall dietary and activity habits. Research suggests they serve several functions the body, potentially supporting bone, organ, brain, and immune health. Some studies indicate they may play a role in weight management, though this remains debated.

The French Paradox: The French paradox refers to the observation that some French populations have lower rates of heart disease despite relatively high intakes of saturated fat from animal and cheese sources. The answer to this is often, "Compared to what?" This phenomenon is complex and likely involves multiple dietary and lifestyle factors beyond fat consumption alone, such as smaller portions, a greater variety of plant-based foods, a more active lifestyle, and overall dietary choices, including the consumption of dark chocolate and the higher consumption of red wine, which contains resveratrol. Additionally, the frequent inclusion of high-quality cheese in the French diet may contribute to the paradox through factors like fermentation and nutrient content.

Coconut Oil and Meats: Not all saturated fats are the same. Although coconut oil is high in saturated fat, it is composed of medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) rather than long-chain triglycerides, mostly in the form of lauric acid, which raises good HDL cholesterol, supports heart health, and may protect against dementia. While cured meats are often cautioned against, higher-quality choices exist due to stringent regulatory controls, such as Prosciutto di Parma (Italy) and Jamón Ibérico (Spain).

Saturated Fat Intake Recommendation: All that being said, many health organizations recommend keeping saturated fat intake under 6–10% of total calories, depending on cholesterol levels, as higher intake may increase the risk of atherosclerosis and heart disease.

Neurological Health: Fats that are rich in unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated) have shown promise in some studies for potentially protecting against neurological conditions such as Alzehimer's and Parkinson's diseases.

Did you know?

In junk food, the combination of high fat, sugar, and salt can lead to overconsumption, as these foods are designed to be highly palatable. In contrast, animal products are particularly satiating due to their high protein content, which is known to effectively reduce hunger and control appetite.

The Bad

High in Calories: Even though fats are important for overall health, weight loss, adding flavour to foods, and essential for cooking, they are incredibly high in energy density. Fried foods, cakes, pastries, and dressings, low in nutrients, low in fibre, and low in water, are classic examples of high-calorie sources. Unfortunately, due to the low cost of vegetable and seed oils in production, which are naturally high in polyunsaturated fats, seed oils are often unfairly made the scapegoat, as they happen to be the main fat source in ultra-refined foods.

Trans Fats: The primary source of artificial trans fats in the diet has historically been from the partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils, a process used in food manufacturing. However, trans fat is less common these days due to regulations and manufacturing shifts.

Omega-3 and Omega-6 Imbalance: Within polyunsaturated fat sources, most of us consume an unbalanced omega-3 to omega-6 ratio of 1:15 or higher, contributing to inflammation and oxidative stress, leading to various chronic diseases. However, this ratio can be mainly pinpointed to ultra-processed foods, thus, we overconsume omega-6 polyunsaturated fats within the context of a standard Western diet. In the context of a healthy diet, incorporating whole food sources high in polyunsaturated fats, such as nuts and seeds, and healthy seed oils like canola (rapeseed), high-oleic sunflower, and camelina oils, has clear benefits, especially for preventing cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome.

Fats with Refined Carbs: While saturated fats from certain foods (whole-fat dairy, eggs, virgin coconut oil, unprocessed meat, and dark chocolate) can be beneficial, particularly on a low-carbohydrate high-fat (LCHF) diet during ketosis, they are harmful in excess (above 10% of total daily calories), particularly when combined with refined carbohydrates, such as high-GI sources, fructose, and sugar, which are prevalent in the standard North American diet. This combination can raise LDL ("bad") cholesterol, triglycerides, ApoB levels, increasing the risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. While saturated fat may be evolutionarily beneficial during periods of winters, drought, and famine, it has been shown to be harmful in our current environment of abundance.

Natural Trans Fats: Other sources of saturated fats, such as lard, butter, and red meat (including beef, lamb, and pork), can also contain small amounts of naturally occurring trans fats.

Low-Fat Products

Dairy: While fermented dairy, such as unpasteurized cheese, kefir, and plain yogurt, is best, try to opt for whole high-fat milk, such as 3.75% fat (homogenized) milk, instead of 0% fat skim milk. The reduced processing allows the beneficial fats to aid in nutrient absorption and satiety.

Sweeteners: Sugars or artificial sweeteners are commonly used as substitutes for fat in low-fat products, especially in first-world countries. Without dietary fat, the body would be susceptible to malnutrition, as fats are required to absorb essential nutrients, such as fat-soluble vitamins.

Saturated Fat: Do note that while the saturated fat in dairy may have some health benefits, especially in fermented products, it is not associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease compared to other animal sources. However, it is not as protective as monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats.

Alcohol

7 calories per gram, however due to our thermogenic responses to ethanol, it is actually 5.7 calories per gram.

Those who are genetically predisposed to alcoholism or addiction should not consume any type of alcohol.

The Good

Answers vary on the subject of intoxication.

Red Wine: The polyphenols in red wine, particularly resveratrol, have been shown to have protective effects on the cardiovascular system, as well as potential anti-cancer, antiviral and anti-allergic properties. Some suggest its most significant benefit may be its role as a social lubricant, promoting relaxation and social connection.

Beer: Beer also contains several nutrients similar to those in wine, with the added benefit of B vitamins.

The Bad

Fat on Hold: The body will use alcohol as the primary source of fuel, putting body fat burning on hold until all of the alcohol has been metabolized.

The Dose Makes the Poison: Many alcoholic beverages contain sugar and many people overindulge. Alcohol also lowers testosterone levels and is linked to cancer. Excessive consumption of alcohol (i.e. getting drunk) causes inflammation, which is linked to a shortened life.

Uric Acid Levels: Beer, sugary (high fructose) drinks, and hard alcohol are high in purines, which can raise uric acid levels. Elevated uric acid levels can lead to gout (arthritis of the joints) and increased risk of heart attacks.

Good-bye Sleep: Alcohol, along with cigarettes (nicotine) and cannabis (THC), has a detrimental effect on sleep. While these substances may initially act as sedatives, creating drowsiness that mimics the sensation of falling asleep, all three substances disrupt sleep architecture. This includes reducing REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep, which is essential for cognitive function and emotional health. They can also increase the likelihood of nighttime awakenings and contribute to less restful sleep.

Macronutrient IntakeCopy Link

The following macronutrient suggestions are based on the core principles of the Mediterranean or Nordic diets, which are currently regarded as the healthiest dietary patterns. This type of diet is suitable for all athletes and fitness goals due to optimal macronutrient ratios.

Food Proportions

Food Group Variations: Achieving the right food proportions can be challenging due to variations in weight, volume, macronutrient ratios, and the high calorie density of fats. On average, vegetables have the highest volume and lowest calorie content, whereas other whole food groups (not fats and oils) are moderate in their volume and more calorie-dense.

Weight vs. Volume vs. Percentages: It's important to understand the differences between portion sizes by weight (e.g., measuring with a food scale), by volume (e.g., measuring with a measuring cup), and by caloric intake (by percentage relative to macronutrient ratios). For instance, dietary fats are very calorie-dense, providing 9 calories per gram, so even a small amount by volume can significantly impact your overall caloric intake.

Workout/Rest Days: On workout days, higher calorie and carbohydrate intake are crucial to fuel performance and recovery. Rest days, being more sedentary, benefit from reduced calorie and carbohydrate consumption to prevent unnecessary energy storage. Protein intake remains critical on both types of days, scaling with caloric needs to support muscle recovery, protein synthesis, and satiety, particularly during fat-loss phases.

Athletes: Macronutrient requirements also vary by athletic focus. Endurance athletes require higher carbohydrate intake, whereas strength or mixed-discipline athletes may emphasise protein and fats differently to meet their specific energy demands.

Simple Strategy: Aim to fill half or more of your plate with vegetables and adding a drizzle of a healthy oil. Complement this with a portion of animal protein or legumes with whole grains. The remaining portion of the "plate" should include any combination of a variety of legumes, whole grains, fruits, nuts, seeds, and dairy. A simple approach is to use the SSF Food Pyramid and the SSF Recipes as a guide. Everything else is just optimization.

Tip

If you eat strictly by SSF's Food Pyramid, you'll find listening to your body's hunger and fullness cues to be more reliable.

Macronutrient Caloric Intake

Note

The following table provides suggested macronutrient ratios for optimal intake on exercise days and rest days. These recommendations apply to anaerobic and aerobic athletes, as well as individuals looking to build muscle or to shed fat.

Macronutrient Table Limitations and Considerations

• Food Quality: Food quality aligns with macronutrient quality. Ensure that you are following a whole foods, plant-dominant diet with high-quality protein sources.
• Proportion Variability: The daily values in percentages represent overall targets for the entire day, rather than exact proportions for each meal. A daily range of ±2.5% for carbohydrates and fats and ±1% for protein is totally fine, as weekly averages generally reflect daily averages.
• Protein Intake: The general population, not engaged in moderate or vigorous exercise, typically requires less protein daily (0.33 grams per pound [0.73 grams per kilogram]). Older adults (65–70) need slightly more. For athletes engaging in resistance training, protein intake ideally should be no more than 1.5 grams per kilogram (0.68 grams per pound) of body weight. For instance, a person weighing 150 lbs (68 kg) person shouldn't exceed 102 grams of protein per day. There is no benefit beyond 1.6 grams of protein per kilogram (0.726 grams per pound) of body weight. Protein intake scale beautifully with calorie requirements.
• Carbohydrate Intake: Consuming more carbohydrates on workout days than on rest days is suggested to better replenish muscle glycogen storage. When you alternate higher and lower carbohydrate intake at different times, it is called "carb cycling" or "carb backloading." The average endurance athlete, such as marathon runners, should consume 500–600 grams of carbohydrates per day to replenish muscle glycogen stores.
• Total Calories: The table does not account for total daily calorie intake on rest versus exercise days. The Macronutrient Calculator can help adjust for these differences.

Category	Day Type	Carbohydrates (%)	Protein (%)	Fats (%)
Anaerobic Athletes	Exercise	62	13	25
Anaerobic Athletes	Rest	56	13	31
Aerobic Athletes	Exercise	68	13	19
Aerobic Athletes	Rest	63	13	24
Building Muscle	Exercise	56	14	30
Building Muscle	Rest	52	14	34
Burning Fat	Exercise	52	15	33
Burning Fat	Rest	48	14	38
Powerlifters	Daily	55	15	30
General Population	Daily	55	10	35
65 and Older	Daily	55	14	31

Tip

If you want to keep it simple, stick to a 55-15-30 calorie ratio of carbs, protein, and fat.

Protein Intake

Absolute vs. Relative Intake

Individuals of the same age, gender, weight, and height can have different calorie requirements due to varying activity levels. This means that if identical twins consume the same macronutrient percentages, the one with higher caloric needs will consume more grams of carbs, protein, and fat. For example, while both hypothetical twins weigh 75 kg and consume the same 15% of their total calories as protein, sedentary twin A will consume 2000 calories per day at 0.8 g/protein per kg of body weight. This is 60 g of protein (75 × 0.8 = 60 grams), while athlete twin B may need an extra 1000 calories, translating to an additional 37.5 grams of protein. That works out to exactly 1.3 g/protein per kg of body weight (75 × 1.3 = 97.5 grams). Protein requirements scale beautifully with calorie requirements.

For beginners and athletes involved in strength training, endurance sports, or other high-intensity activities, the protein needs are higher to support muscle repair, growth, and performance.

• General Population: The recommended daily allowance for most people is 0.8 grams per kilogram (0.36 grams per pound) of body weight, based on covering 97.5% of the population (within two standard deviations on the bell curve). The general population currently already overconsumes protein.
• Athletes: Within the range of the International Society of Sports Nutrition's guidelines, the recommended daily protein intake for athletes is within the range of 1.3–1.62 g/kg (0.59–0.735 g/lbs) of body weight per day.
• Powerlifters and Calorie Restriction: The higher end of this range (1.5–1.62 g/kg) is particularly beneficial for powerlifters, or during periods of caloric restriction (fat-loss phases) to prevent muscle loss.
• Individuals Over 55: Individuals aged 65 and older should consume 1.0–1.2 g/kg (0.454–0.545 g/lbs) to preserve lean mass and prevent sarcopenia (age-related muscle loss).
• Longevity: For optimal longevity, athletes should generally not exceed 1.5 g/kg (0.68 g/lbs) over extended periods.

There is no benefit beyond 1.6 grams of protein per kilogram (0.726 grams per pound) of body weight.

Calculating Macronutrient Intake

The following Macronutrient Calculator provides daily guidelines for calories and macronutrients on workout and rest days.

Your intake should align with your maintenance, weight gain, or weight loss goals as determined by the Calorie Calculator.

The calculator averages your weekly workout and rest day calories to ensure your daily caloric consumption remains consistent.

SSF Macronutrient Calculator

Goal

🔥 Burn fat 💪 Build or ⚖️ Maintain muscle

Average daily caloric consumption:
(Based on your Calorie Calculator result)

Calories

Workout days per week:

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Consume

Workout Days

Calories/day

Rest Days

Calories/day

	Workout Days		Rest Days
	Calories	Grams	Calories	Grams
Carbs
Protein
Fat

Popular DietsCopy Link

Note

If you have transitioned from the standard Western diet to a new diet without ultra-processed foods, whether it is Paleo, Carnivore, or Vegan, you might actually be trying an elimination diet. This doesn't mean the new diet you choose is necessarily the best long-term solution or optimal for health.

Often, the initial improvement comes from eliminating ultra-processed, high-sugar, high-salt, and high-calorie foods. It's more important to choose a diet that supports your long-term health and performance rather than standing by a specific dietary camp or "tribe." Personal biases aside, a good diet is one consistently backed up by multiple clinical studies.

Many diets end up being temporary, largely due to their unsustainability, rather than becoming part of a permanent lifestyle. A good diet is a nutrient-dense one that you can maintain over a lifetime.

Disclaimer

Diets are nutritional guidelines to help facilitate meal planning for health or fitness goals. A diet is considered successful when it is part of a healthy and sustainable lifestyle. Individuals are free to choose which diet works best for them whether it is for ethical reasons or for greater dietary control.

Mediterranean Diet

Subset: Nordic Diet

Simple Science Fitness officially endorses a Mediterranean- or Nordic-type Diet that incorporates ancestral eating patterns.

The Mediterranean diet, not limited to exclusively Mediterranean ingredients (such as the Nordic Diet), provides an optimal amount of nutrients through variety and balance, promoting exceptional gut health and overall fitness. The diet focuses on plenty of plant-based foods like vegetables, legumes, and whole grains, supplemented with fruits, nuts, and seeds. The diet is complemented by fermented dairy products and a moderate amount of seafood, while limiting the consumption of poultry, eggs, and especially red meat. They are relatively rich in fats, with the primary source coming from extra virgin olive oil, walnuts, almonds, hazelnuts, and fish. The meals are also enriched by a variety of herbs and spices.

It is very similar to the Nordic Diet, with the main difference being that olive oil is substituted with canola (rapeseed) oil, which contains alpha-linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid from plants.

By focusing on nutrient-dense food sources based on our food pyramid, food groups, food energy-health graph, you can obtain the most nutrients with the least amount of calories. Our recipes and macronutrient suggestions will provide a foundation for your daily requirements. It is the least restrictive of the following popular diets and arguably works just as well, if not better, due to the flexibility, variety, balance, and ease of incorporating into a sustainable lifestyle.

The Mediterranean-type diet has long been the gold standard diet in promoting heart health, longevity and excellent health, as observed in centenarians of the blue zone regions of Italy (Sardinia), Japan (Okinawa), Greece (Icaria), and Costa Rica (Nicoya Peninsula).

Pros

Along with improved gut health, the Mediterranean (and Nordic) Diet includes a wide variety of anti-inflammatory, nutrient-dense foods. While the Nordic Diet leans more towards polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids, the Mediterranean Diet leans more towards monounsaturated fats, particularly oleocanthal from extra virgin olive oil. While consumption of red wine is optional, the flavonoids in red wine promotes longevity and good health. The Mediterranean diet has been known to protect the heart, improve heart rate variability, and treat obesity. This type of diet is adaptable and sustainable for a modern lifestyle while promoting both health and fitness.

Cons

While still excellent for muscle-building goals, the diet may not be optimal due to moderate intake of meat and calories, however, this can be customized to fit fitness goals. Until modern technology ensures sustainable fishing practices, the weekly consumption of fish does not align with ideal ecological sustainability standards. The inclusion of meat may conflict with the values of individuals who avoid eating animals for ethical, environmental, or personal reasons.

More Info

• SSF Food Pyramid
• Food Groups
• Oldways Mediterranean Diet and Pyramid
• Official Dietary Guidelines of Denmark
• Canada's Food Guide

Keto Diet

Subset: Atkins Diet, Carnivore Diet, South Beach Diet

The ketogenic diet derives about 70–80% of its total calories from fat, 10–20% from protein, and the remaining calories (usually up to 50 grams per day) from carbohydrates. These carbohydrates primarily come from non-starchy vegetables and low-calorie sources like leafy, cruciferous, and root vegetables. Due to carb restriction, the body regulates blood sugar levels and shifts to utilizing body fat and ketones for energy. While this can be a daily regimen, the protocol recommends either a targeted ketogenic diet, where additional carbs are consumed around exercise days, or a cyclic ketogenic diet, where one "carbs up" over the weekend.

Pros

High fat diets are generally nutrient-dense and excellent for satiety, weight loss, and overall health. They can help in maintaining lean muscle, treating obesity, and building muscle. Studies have also shown neuroprotective benefits such as slowing down aging, treating epilepsy, possible cancer treatment, maintaining an excellent LDL to HDL cholesterol ratio, and blood sugar control.

The keto diet can be adapted to resemble a healthy pescatarian-leaning diet, provided the sources of fat and protein come mostly from plants and, to a lesser extent, from fish. Plant-based fat and protein sources include nuts, seeds, oils, tofu, tempeh, avocados, and coconut products.

Cons

Ketones are actually an alternative energy source, while glucose, the primary fuel for the body, is typically derived from carbohydrate sources. The long-term implications of relying heavily on ketones as an energy source remain unclear.

Many people experience "brain fog" and lethargy ("keto flu") during the first week or two of adjustment. While in ketosis, bad breath due to acetone is a common side effect. Lower muscle glycogen levels due to the absence of carbohydrates can compromise optimal performance and strength, making the diet less suitable for high-performance or endurance athletes.

The temptations for carbohydrates in most environments may make the diet challenging to sustain, and some individuals may overconsume processed meats. Additionally, there are concerns about the long-term effects of high-fat and high-protein diets due to associations with higher mortality rates. This is particularly true if the diet is comprised of high levels of animal-based saturated fats and processed meats instead of healthier fats, as studies show an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, in particular atherosclerosis. Despite an excellent HDL to LDL ratio, the diet has also been shown to increase LDL cholesterol. It appears what may be good for your blood sugar isn't necessarily good for your heart, which highlights the importance of fibre intake, something this diet lacks.

The subset diet, the Carnivore Diet, may slow down diabetes risk due to low glucose intake but could also speed up heart disease risk, depending on fat consumption.

More Info

• Reddit's /r/keto FAQ
• Ketogains

Paleo Diet

Subset: Primal Diet

The paleo diet focuses on whole foods found in nature, mirroring the diet of our ancestors and aligning with our species' biological adaptations. Typically lower in carbohydrates, the diet consists of vegetables, fruits, eggs, fish, meat, and nuts, while excluding most processed foods, including grains, legumes, and dairy.

Pros

Emphasizes whole, nutrient-dense foods for optimal health. Excellent for satiety, weight loss, and building muscle. Historical and anthropological records show that pre-agrarian hunter-gatherers enjoyed excellent health.

Cons

The absence or limitations of legumes, grains, and dairy in the Paleo diet may be too restrictive for some, as these foods provide essential nutrients, fibre, and prebiotics that support gut health. Legumes, consumed by humans for thousands of years, offer fibre and protein, while grains supply B vitamins and resistant starch. Dairy contributes calcium and probiotics. Additionally, a higher intake of animal sources, particularly red and processed meats, could negatively affect longevity by increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases and certain cancers. Unfortunately, meat consumption in this modern environment heavily favors sources higher in saturated fats, rather than leaner options such as venison or turkey.

More Info

Reddit's /r/paleo FAQ

USDA MyPlate

Subset: DASH Diet, Ornish Diet

Released in 2011, MyPlate is the current dietary guideline promoted by the U.S. Government. The simple plate diagram divides food into categories: vegetables, fruits, grains, dairy, and protein. However, fats are not prominently featured in the visual representation.

Pros

It provides an easy-to-follow method for portioning different food groups.

Cons

The exclusion of explicit healthy fat sources and the emphasis on no-fat or low-fat options, while permitting refined grains, are considered outdated and counterproductive. The recommendations for calcium and dairy are excessive and could be harmful in the long term, offering no significant benefits, particularly given the high prevalence of lactose intolerance. Additionally, the diet appears to be influenced by industry interests. The protein section is ambiguous, lacking clear distinctions between healthier options, like fish and beans, and less healthy choices, such as red and processed meats.

The Harvard School of Public Health proposed the “Healthy Eating Plate” as an improvement, which includes healthy oils and makes distinctions within the protein and grain categories. However, some argue that it still does not reach the nutritional diversity offered by historical guidelines such as the USDA's 1943–1956 USDA food chart, or the wonderful, timeless, cutting-edge USDA 1980 Dietary Guidelines (PDF). Better nutrition guidelines today can be found through the Canadian and Denmark governments.

More Info

MyPlate.gov

Vegetarian and Vegan Diets

Subset: Pescatarian Diet

Vegetarian and vegan diets are best consumed as Whole Foods Plant-Based (WFPB) diets. These diets are humane, environmentally conscious, and high in carbohydrates, focusing on a wide variety of vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, and whole grains. Vegetarians avoid all meat and fish but may consume either eggs or dairy, or both. Pescatarians consume fish but avoid other meats. Vegans do not consume any animal products, including eggs and dairy.

Pros

Vegetarian and vegan diets are typically low in calories, high in fibre, and nutrient-dense. These diets are excellent for weight management, as they help reduce calorie intake while providing essential nutrients. Additionally, they are effective in lowering LDL cholesterol and blood pressure, contributing to excellent cardiovascular health—provided sufficient vitamin B12 intake—and reducing risks of certain types of cancer.

Cons

Without proper planning, the absence or limitations of animal sources may likely cause nutritional deficiencies in vitamin D, vitamin B12, iron, zinc and essential omega-3 fatty acids. Unlike pescatarians, vegans are at higher risk of zinc, calcium, and selenium deficiencies.

Vitamin B12 is only naturally found in animal sources, so supplementation is required for vegans and vegetarians who do not consume fortified foods. Deficiencies in these nutrients can lead to various and significant health issues. For example, low vitamin B12 levels can result in anemia (fatigue and weakness) and neurological problems, including dementia.

Many packaged vegan meals are ultra-processed due to additives, emulsifiers, and flavour enhancers. A diet high in refined carbohydrates (e.g., sugar, white bread, pasta, and rice), which can result from poorly planned vegetarian diets, may be linked to poor health outcomes. This includes an increased risk of mental disorders such as depression. Furthermore, adherence to a vegetarian or vegan diet can be challenging for some due to temptations for meat, as humans have been natural omnivores in all cultures throughout history up until recent times.

Although a diet rich in fibre and antioxidants is linked to longer life expectancy, certain key nutrients for longevity, such as selenium, zinc, and omega-3 fatty acids, are less abundant in plant-based sources. These nutrients are more readily available in animal products. Pescatarians, who consume fish and align to diets like the Mediterranean Diet, typically do not require supplementation for these nutrients, while vegans often need to take supplements to avoid deficiencies.

More Info

Oldways Vegetarian/Vegan Diet and Pyramid

Comparing Diets

By removing ultra-processed foods ("junk foods") from the standard Western diet and focusing on whole foods, we can compare various diets that permit, limit, or restrict certain foods.

In the graph below, by plotting major food groups around a spider chart with plant sources clustered to the lower areas, animal sources towards the upper areas, and junk food to the top left, you can observe how various diets can be diverse or restrictive based on the foods selected. The standard Western diet, not listed on the graph, would largely gravitate towards the far upper left of the graph ("Junk Food").

If you are tracking calories, you would start to gain awareness of the quantity and the quality of various foods Groups through your choices.

Choosing a Diet

• 🌟 Long-Term Sustainability: Mediterranean Diet, DASH Diet
• 💪 Performance and Muscle-Building: Mediterranean Diet, Paleo Diet
• 🩺 Obesity and Epilepsy Treatment: Mediterranean Diet, Keto Diet
• 🌿 Longevity and Health: Mediterranean Diet

Other Diets

Several other diets, such as the DASH Diet, Carnivore Diet, South Beach Diet, Zone Diet, Ornish Diet, and Primal Diet, have similarities to the ones discussed, with some overlaps or extreme differences. They are listed as subsets of the primary diets.

Cleanses/Detoxes

Many other diets are also worth avoiding for health reasons, especially those that involve "detoxing, "cleansing," or "juicing."

These misguided fad diets are ineffective at best and damaging at worst. For instance, one popular yet extreme cleanse calls for nothing but lemon water, maple syrup, cayenne pepper, and tea to be consumed daily for at least 10 days. There is no sense in consuming dangerously low levels of calories while being deficient in several micronutrients.

After the cleanse is over, the body will likely pack on fat quickly because it is recovering from malnutrition. This makes the "cleanse" ironically counterproductive in every way.

Nothing cleanses your body better than your own kidneys and liver, and nothing damages your kidneys and liver more than a bad diet.

Author's Anecdote

"I'm on a diet." 9 out of 10 times the diet is temporary, based on the implication. When people go on a temporary diet, they see short term results. When they switch back to their regular (unhealthy) diet, their desired results quickly vanish, and sometimes see even worse outcomes. This is called yo-yo dieting. If you're switching from one temporary diet to another temporary diet, one is probably unsustainable and the other unhealthy. A lifestyle change is absolutely necessary for a diet to stick permanently.

Diet vs. DietCopy Link

The Two Diets

Diet #1

Diet #2

Diet #1 and Diet #2 have a combined weight of 1.2 kg each. Let's break them down.

Comparing Foods

Water in Foods (100 g per Item)

Calories in Foods (100 g per Item)

Generally, the more water in your food, the less calories you consume. Why? Because water has 0 calories.

Comparing Drinks

Water in Drinks (100 g per Item)

Not much variance with water in the drinks here, however…

Calories in Drinks (100 g per Item)

The less sugar in your drinks, the less calories you consume. Why? Because water has 0 calories and sugar has 4 calories for every gram/mL.

Did you know?

There are 9 calories for every gram of fat. A gram of carbohydrates and protein contain only 4 calories each.

Calories by Weight

Diet #1

Diet #2

At the same portion weight, we're looking at 3X more calories with Diet #2! Basically…

Equivalent Calories

This simple demonstration shows that calories do matter, especially in the context of optimal versus suboptimal nutrition.

But wait, there's more.

The Health Correlation

Water vs. Calories vs. Nutrients

Water

Water has zero calories. The more water your food contains, the more hydrated and less hungry you become.

Calories

The more calories you consume, the more weight you put on. Keep in mind, dietary fat has 9 calories per gram vs. 4 for carbohydrates and for protein.

Nutrients

The more nutrients (vitamins and minerals) you consume, the healthier and more satiated (fuller) you become. Remember, sugar has zero nutrients.

Note: The scale above is based on nutrient density per calorie.

Optimal DietsCopy Link

The healthiest foods are the most nutritionally dense and satiating ones, which blunts hunger and appetite. For instance, vitamin A helps maintain vision and skin growth, iron is needed for the production of red blood cells, a full amino acid profile helps build muscle, and essential fatty acids are required for brain functioning. High quality foods sustain and promote life, as well as regulate body weight.

Optimal Nutrient Density

Combining both plant and animal sources ensures a comprehensive nutrient intake with fewer calories. Both sources are rich in quality macronutrients and micronutrients. Plant-based foods, especially vegetables and fruits, contain an abundance of health-protective and health-promoting nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and fibre, while animal-based foods provide essential fatty acids and complete high-quality proteins, which are crucial for overall health. In combination, they help enhance the bioavailability of important vitamins and minerals, such as iron.

Note though, the proportions of plant and animal sources should not be 50-50.

A varied diet that includes vegetables, fruits, legumes, complemented by moderate portions of fish, eggs, and meat can contribute to weight loss and the prevention of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke, cancer, acne, and tooth decay. Such a diet also supports physical and mental health, potentially preventing or alleviating many ailments.

As a general rule, high nutrient density sources fulfill one or all of the following criteria:

• It is a whole food.
• It is from a plant or animal source.
• The composition is mostly water.
• It has little to no sugar.

In many cases, if the nutrient density is high, then the energy density is low, and vice versa.

For example, compare the following food sources:

=

Calories

Optimal Energy Density

The more energy dense the food is, the more calories it packs. Sugar and fat are high energy density sources. For example, in a typical medium Dairy Queen Blizzard, the total calories are equivalent to 9 large eggs. Eating 9 eggs in one sitting, which is satiating, is more difficult to finish than a medium Blizzard as a dessert.

Author's Anecdote

The Blizzard in this example is meant to dissuade you from wanting one. Though, that has backfired before.

Energy density isn't necessarily a bad thing. While nuts and healthy fats are energy dense, they are also nutrient dense, and so would be beneficial to consume in moderation.

Beverages are designed to be quickly consumed which means calories can add up fast. Pop/soda, beer, juice, mixed coffee, and alcoholic drinks can pack in several hundred calories. Consuming high calorie beverages is the fastest way to put on body fat. Keep in mind, a can of pop/soda is the caloric equivalent to drinking 2 large eggs.

Vegetables and berries are extremely low in calories. Contrary to popular belief, meats, seafood, and eggs can be relatively low in energy density due to their high water and protein content.

Did you know?

1 Cinnabon (880 calories) is roughly the caloric equivalent of:

• 23 slices of bacon
• 10 large eggs
• 77 extra large shrimp
• 1 large 14 oz steak

While added fats and oils are very high in energy density, small amounts used in cooking goes a long way. Remember, there are more calories in a typical can of pop than in a tablespoon of butter.

Optimal Satiety

Protein is key to weight management due to its significant effects on satiety ("the feeling of fullness"), along with fibre and water. Fibre and water include legumes, whole grains, vegetables, and fruit. Healthy fats provide additional satiety benefits. Protein is abundant in animal foods, while water and fibre are abundant in plants. Satiating foods help prevent overeating by naturally regulating hunger.

Caffeine, tea, and spices have also been shown to blunt appetite. Other than satiety, they produce thermogenesis and fat burning benefits.

In contrast, refined (simple) carbohydrates and ultra-processed foods (UPFs), such as white bread, are poor for satiety and increase appetite, which leads to overeating.

Author's Anecdote

Still feeling hungry after eating a meal? Drinking tea helps.

Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are. Jean Brillat-Savarin (1755–1826)

Nutrient Diversity

Eating a wide variety of nutrients in a single day can enhance health benefits through synergistic interactions between different food components. Combining diverse ingredients in one meal may optimize these effects (e.g., oil, turmeric, and pepper), as they work together to improve nutrient absorption and functionality. Spreading out different foods over several days (e.g., fatty fish one day, vegetarian another) also helps ensure a balanced intake of nutrients in the long run. Both approaches have their own advantages for overall nutrition.

Suboptimal DietsCopy Link

Or, How to Damage My Mind and Body

Hyperpalatable convenience products—processed and ultra-processed—that are sweet, salty, or fried are generally nutrient-poor, high in calories, and easy to overconsume. Weight management largely depends on calories and satiety.

Sick Society: Modern diseases such as obesity and the metabolic syndrome, along with cardiovascular disease, stroke, diabetes, and cancer, are linked to the standard Western diet, which largely consists of the overconsumption of refined carbohydrates and saturated fat, along with disproportionately higher consumption of omega-6 seed oils. Consuming nutrient-poor food sources contribute to overeating and addictive behaviours.

Nutrient Deficiencies: Malnutrition is the consequence of not consuming enough nutrients and can be found in both overweight and underweight bodies. Being overweight is malnutrition by the overconsumption of empty calories (i.e., sugar and other refined carbohydrates) and being underweight is the malnutrition by the consumption of fewer overall calories. The health risk is greater if most of the calories are empty nutritionally.

Suboptimal Nutrient Density

Dangers of Sugar: Sugar, made up of 50% glucose and 50% fructose, is a source of empty calories, and is especially prevalent in junk food. Sugar is a contributing factor to diabetes, the obesity epidemic, high blood pressure, and raised triglycerides. Sugar also contributes to cancer growth. Eliminating added sugar from your diet will significantly improve your health.

Low-Fat Products: Many "low-fat" products compensate with added sugar. Examples include barbecue sauces, ketchup, fruit drinks, yogurt, peanut butter, dried fruit, tomato sauce, salad dressing, gravy, seasoning mix, and granola.

Improper Use of Seed Oils: Low-cost polyunsaturated seed oils are commonly used in fried foods and ultra-processed food. The typical ratio can be as high as 1:25 omega-3 to omega-6 in the Western diet. The ratio should be closer to 1:1 or 1:2. Polyunsaturated fats are unfortunately served as scapegoats in this context, and are not necessarily bad for you.

Suboptimal Energy Density

Unholy Combo: Wheat flour is typically mixed with sugar and fat, which are sources high in energy density, in order to create wheat-based products such as doughnuts and pies. Wheat-based products can also be easily consumed in one sitting and is more palatable with added sugar and fats. For example, a dish of fettuccine alfredo pasta is 1200 calories and a 12" medium cheese pizza is 1920 calories.

Energy Bloat: Sugar, fat, and salt are commonly added to improve palatability, however they have been exploited to push for overconsumption where we use the term "hyperpalatable" because many products taste bland without them. A plain Belgian waffle without the butter and syrup is still 410 calories. Even worse, easily consumable high-calorie beverages such as juice, sweetened coffee, pop/soda, and beer can double a day's caloric total from meals.

Did you know?

A typical fast food milkshake could contain over 1000 calories, the equivalent of 12 large eggs.

More people would benefit by increasing savoury low-calorie herbs, spices, and seasoning instead of excess sugar, fat, and salt.

Suboptimal Satiety

Refined (simple) carbohydrates are low in protein, water, and fibre, the keys to satiety. Thus, refined carbohydrates are easy to overconsume.

Orange/Juice: A glass of orange juice is very different from an orange. Orange juice contains more sugar—more calories, less satiating—because the filling fibre (pulp from the orange) has been removed or reduced. So, it takes a few oranges to make one glass. The higher fibre in an orange helps with satiety and also slows the absorption of sugars instead of causing a blood sugar spike. If it takes 3 oranges to make one glass of orange juice, would eating 3 oranges be just as easy as drinking one glass of orange juice?

Despite the fact that 6 large eggs has the same amount of calories as 2 glazed doughnuts, it is far more satiating to eat 6 large eggs.

Did you know?

It takes almost 7 cups of orange juice (784 calories) to reach the same fibre content of 1 orange (62 calories).

It has been hypothesized that the body craves nutrients and would overeat in order to fulfill nutritional requirements.

Excessive Salt Intake

Salt (sodium) is essential for human health, but too much of it can cause more problems than just high blood pressure.

1. Dehydration: Excessive salt intake causes the body to retain water, leading to dehydration. This can trigger a physiological response in the body to increase thirst and appetite, potentially leading to overeating. Dehydration caused by high salt intake may also lower heart rate variability (HRV) by disrupting the balance of the nervous system, further stressing the cardiovascular system.
2. Carbohydrates and Fructose: High salt intake may promote the conversion of glucose into fructose within the body. When carbohydrates are consumed alongside a high-salt diet, it can activate a metabolic switch that converts glucose to fructose. Fructose is linked to increased fat storage, insulin resistance, and metabolic disorders.
3. Uric Acid and Fat Storage: The metabolism of fructose produces uric acid, which may activate a pathway that encourages fat storage. Elevated uric acid levels have been associated with obesity and metabolic syndrome, as this pathway signals the body to store energy as fat, preparing for periods of food scarcity.
4. Fat and Metabolism: Dietary fat combined with high salt intake can exacerbate the above effects by slowing down metabolism and converting excess calories into body fat. This combination may lead to increased weight gain.

Thus, excessive salt intake is clearly linked to the dangers of sugar, fat, and refined carbohydrates, contributing to hyperpalatability.

Hyperpalatability

What makes ultra-processed foods (UPFs) so successful (and addictive) is their hyperpalatability.

The combination of salt, sugar, fat, and white flour creates many of the most common hyperpalatable foods, often referred to as "junk food."

Hyperpalatable foods are designed to target the "bliss point," making you crave more salt, sugar, and fat, leading to a vicious cycle that more often than not, causes obesity. Overconsumption of hyperpalatable foods can alter taste tolerance levels, causing foods that are extremely salty or sweet to become the new norm. Healthier individuals may find such foods overwhelmingly salty or sweet by comparison.

Sugar, devoid of nutrients and associated with addiction, is a major concern in hyperpalatable foods.

The Horsemen's Quadrant

Meal StrategiesCopy Link

When to Eat

Eat breakfast like a king, eat lunch like a prince, and eat dinner like a pauper. Adelle Davis

Importance: For weight management and metabolic control, when you eat is important, though secondary to what you eat and how much you eat. The body is efficient at partitioning and storing food energy and nutrients. For example, if you consume whole grains in the morning and legumes in the afternoon—both sources with different protein amino acid profiles—your body will still obtain the full range of essential amino acids it requires. However, protein, vitamin C, and the B-complex vitamins benefit from meal timing for optimization and bioabsorption.

Breakfast: Breakfast is important for most people because diet-induced thermogenesis (energy for digestion) is 2.5 times higher in the morning than the evening.

Taper Your Energy Intake: It is better to consume a larger portion of your calories earlier in the day, as this aligns with the body's natural circadian rhythms—metabolic and hormonal processes—which are more active in the morning. This can lead to better blood glucose control and may also contribute to improved sleep consolidation and overall metabolic outcomes.

Dinner: Eating a late meal at night can elevate blood sugar levels and reduce fat burning. This occurs because the body has reduced insulin sensitivity and a slower metabolism in the evening, which may contribute to weight gain and promote obesity. Furthermore, when you are sleeping, the body should be resting, not digesting. Digesting late at night can decrease HRV and place the body under stress when it should be recovering.

3 vs. 6 Meals in a Day: Three meals a day is recommended over six. This is because constant eating (snacking or grazing) throughout the day can keep insulin levels elevated, potentially leading to insulin resistance over time. This is particularly true if the snacks are high in refined carbohydrates and sugars due to low fibre and high glucose content.

1 Big Meal in a Day: On the other extreme, consuming just one meal a day is not recommended, as it places significant stress on the body by requiring it to digest an entire day's worth of calories all at once. Even more so if eaten close to bedtime, which would significantly disrupt the sleep cycle. Additionally, this approach can lead to nutrient absorption issues, as the body may struggle to efficiently process all the essential proteins, vitamins, and minerals in one sitting.

Portion Sizes: A diet high in whole food sources from both plants (fibre) and animals (protein) is naturally satiating, allowing your body to respond to hunger and fullness cues. This means portion sizes don't need to be measured and calories don't need to be counted. However, if performance or weight goals are not being met, measuring portions with a food scale and tracking calories with proper macronutrient ratios is recommended.

Additionally, the timing of exercise is important, and fasting has been shown to be beneficial.

Nutrition Timing

What you eat matters more than when you eat. That said, there are optimization factors around intake. Do consider other interdependent factors such as exercise intensity, sleep, hydration, and fasting.

• Protein Intake: Protein intake is ideally consumed spread throughout the day for multiple spikes of protein synthesis, with the focus on total protein intake. The "anabolic window" for protein intake is traditionally between 30 minutes to 2 hours post-exercise, though current research has shown it can be as long as several hours.
• Protein Synthesis: To optimize muscle protein synthesis, consume 25–30 grams of protein from a meal within a few hours after strength training. This could represent the highest protein intake of the day for muscle maintenance and growth.
• Optimal Performance: For peak performance, it is optimal to consume sufficient carbohydrates (to replenish muscle glycogen) and protein (to repair muscle) both before and after a workout. Ideally, pre- and post-exercise meals should not be separated by more than 3–4 hours.
• Optimal Health: For metabolic health, including improved insulin sensitivity and fat oxidation, exercising in a fasted state before a low-to-moderate intensity ~30 minute workout can be beneficial.
• Optimal Blood Sugar Management: For optimal blood glucose management, other than exercising in a fasted state, aim to exercise 30 minutes to 2 hours after a small meal. If the meal is large, high in fat, or high in fibre, wait 2 or more hours before exercising.
• Post-Workout Intake: Consuming both protein and carbohydrates after a workout increases insulin levels, muscle glycogen, protein synthesis, and growth hormone.
• Protein Shakes: Optionally, for a pre- or post-workout shake, you may consume protein powder in water. For prolonged exercise lasting for more than an hour, consider taking the shake with a high glycemic-index carbohydrate source such as a banana, maltodextrin, or dextrose. The high GI source quickly raises insulin levels for optimal protein intake.
• Caffeine Boost: Coffee, especially when consumption is restricted to once a day, also provides a performance boost due to the caffeine. Moderate intake will also be beneficial for performance.

Tip

Refer to the macronutrient caloric intake table for various goals and populations, or use the Calorie Calculator and Macronutrient Calculator to calculate your intake numbers.

Cheat Meals

Pros and Cons: Cheat meals or occasional indulgences are encouraged—with a caveat. Cheat meals reduce the chances of long term failure and serves positive psychological benefits since it is a break from structure and satisfies cravings. On the other hand, the short-term pleasure may be followed by undesirable mental and physical side effects, potentially creating a negative feedback loop that spirals into unhealthy habits. This effect appears to be more prominent in individuals prone to addiction. People who stick to a healthy diet as outlined in this site will become less tempted by junk food over time, especially when they understand the relationship between food and their own gut microbiome.

Indulge Smartly: Cheat meals are also known to undo a week's worth of proper diet because some cheat meals are abnormally high in calories. As long as you are mindful of your caloric intake and of any potential addictive behaviours, have (almost) anything you want for a cheat meal.

Occasionally on Occasions: One suggested way of enjoying a cheat meal is to coincide it with special occasions, such as Christmas, Diwali, Thanksgiving, Oktoberfest, your birthday, an anniversary, and so on.

Author's Anecdote

I've enjoyed the occasional treat, which means a croissant, a burger, or a pint of Guinness. The rest of the time I follow the recommended diet. Mathematically, about 3% of my total calories come from cheat meals, an amount insignificant to my overarching goals. However, I do pay attention to my total calories so I don't go overboard on a single binge.

Counting Calories

Unless you have specific physical and performance goals, or if you are on a diet regimen recommended by this site, it may be unnecessary to count calories since quality foods will control your hunger-satiety levels. Counting calories are also not required when protein intake is sufficient.

However, for the purposes of losing or gaining weight and educating oneself, tracking calories may be helpful, especially for beginners.

Many people over- or underestimate the number of calories they consume daily. Counting calories can be a useful way to educate yourself about the energy density of various types of foods.

If you track calories and macronutrients, you gain awareness of the quality of the foods and drinks you consume. By gaining awareness, you are able to make better consumption choices and learn how to manage your weight.

Tracking Sugar Intake

There are 4 grams of sugar in one teaspoon.

The World Health Organization suggests limiting your total sugar intake to under 5% or under 25 grams (6.25 teaspoons) per day.

For reference, here are some products that go over the 5% daily recommendation:

Food/Drink	Sugar (g)	Teaspoons of Sugar
1 can of Coca-Cola	39	9.75
1 bottle of Minute Maid Apple Juice	49	12.25
4 tbsp of Kraft barbecue sauce	26	6.5
1 Grande (medium) Starbucks Caramel Macchiato	33	8.25
1 cup of Yoplait yogurt	28	7
1 cup of granola	28	7

SSF Egg Standard

The SSF Egg Standard is a simple method of portion control, particularly useful if you are trying to lose weight. It doesn't have to be the Egg Standard—it could also be the Potato or Apple Standard, as one egg has a similar calorie count to one medium potato or one medium apple.

Eggs are one of the most nutritious food sources on the planet, making them a good benchmark for this purpose. One large egg contains approximately 80 calories—or half a can of pop/soda. If you finish dinner and are considering dessert, calculate its calorie equivalent. For instance, a slice of cheesecake is around 260 calories. Using the Egg Standard, this is the caloric equivalent of just over three eggs. If the thought of eating three eggs feels too filling, then you might not actually have room for a whole slice.

The SSF Egg (or Baked Potato or Apple) Standard can be applied to any meal or drink to help regulate food choices. It's a simple and effective way to evaluate whether your options align with your health goals.

Here's a table with some examples to refer to:

Food/Drink	Calories	Large Eggs
12 potato chips	160	2
1/2 cup ice cream	145	~2
1 chocolate bar	320	4
1 large mixed coffee drink	360	4.5
1 pint of beer	200	2.5
1 croissant	230	~3

Intermittent FastingCopy Link

What is Fasting?

Disclaimer

Before attempting any kind of fast, consult with your physician. While fasting is generally safe for many people, it is not suitable for everyone, and clinical guidance may be necessary.

Recommended Daily Fasting Duration

Ideally 12–13 hours of daily fasting, and up to 14 hours.

Fasting for 16 hours is acceptable for the short term (several months), but not recommended long term due to potential gallbladder issues.

Consuming breakfast is recommended for most people, as studies suggest it may be beneficial for about 70-80% of the population.

Intermittent fasting is a method of adjusting your eating schedule between two states: the fed state (the period of time during which you eat) and the fasted state (the period of time when you do not eat). This optimizes fat-burning periods when you're in the fat-loss phase, and minimizes fat accumulation during a bulk. This is due to the increase in resting metabolism by utilizing body fat for fuel.

During the fed state, the body metabolizes the necessary food energy and nutrients.

You may drink water or consume extremely low-calorie beverages such as teas without sugar and black coffee during the fasted state. Otherwise, the fasted state breaks and you enter the fed state.

Fasting is not the same as starving. Starvation does not occur until after about three days of no caloric intake or prolonged periods of caloric intake below 1200 calories. However, controlled fasting, such as a fasting-mimicking diet that actually goes under 1200 calories, offers tremendous long-term benefits.

Did you know?

While you are sleeping, you are actually fasting.

Training in a Fasted State

Intermittent fasting does not necessarily cause muscle loss. However, when training in zones 4 and 5 during a fasted state, it is important that you consume a protein-rich source (25–30 grams) within a few hours after an anaerobic workout. This is in order to counteract muscle breakdown and support protein synthesis. Consuming protein post-exercise, even if it breaks the fast, will not negate the benefits of fasting. The initial fasted exercise period offers significant benefits, such as improved fat oxidation and metabolic health, while post-exercise nutrition is essential for recovery and muscle maintenance. Overall, the balance of protein intake and exercise determines muscle preservation.

Benefits of Fasting

Intermittent fasting has been shown to have numerous long-term benefits. During the fasted state, it elevates growth hormone levels, enhances cardiovascular health by lowering blood pressure, and reduces the risk of metabolic diseases and inflammatory responses. Additionally, it decreases the likelihood of diabetes and improves mitochondrial function and insulin sensitivity, which positively impacts both heart and brain health. It is an anti-aging protocol.

Intermittent fasting does not negatively affect cognitive abilities or mood. Adverse effects are typically associated with starvation.

Fasting has also been shown to slow the rate of aging, thereby extending human longevity and improving health.

Intermittent fasting, due to the potential for its neuroprotective effects, has been shown to reduce the risk of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

Did you know?

Fasting has been practised for millennia across religions and cultures, including Christianity (Lent), Islam (Ramadan), Judaism (Yom Kippur), Hinduism (vrata), Jainism (spiritual purification), and within Indigenous traditions.

Author's Anecdote

Intermittent fasting for 12–13 hours every day is fantastic. Simply avoid eating a few hours before bed and wait for a couple hours after waking up. That's it. Many people may not realize they've already been doing this intuitively. It's the easiest method for weight management.

Fasting-Mimicking Diet

Disclaimer

While most people do not experience adverse side effects, the Fasting-Mimicking Diet (FMD) may not be suitable for everyone, particularly individuals who are underweight, pregnant, over the age of 65, or have certain medical conditions. This plan is not recommended for those under 18. Before starting, consult your doctor or nutritionist, especially if you have pre-existing medical conditions or are taking medications.

What is FMD?: Developed by Dr. Valter Longo and his team over 30 years of research, the fasting-mimicking diet (FMD) involves periodically consuming very low-calorie, low-protein meals over a cycle of up to five days to mimic the effects of fasting. In today's environment of food abundance, many people unfortunately develop chronic insulin resistance, which can lead to diabetes. From an evolutionary standpoint, fasting was a natural and regular part of human life.

Supercharging: Our ancestors frequently experienced periods of famine, drought, and long winters where food was scarce. These conditions led to metabolic adaptations, including changes in hormone levels, gene expression, and metabolic pathways, that have profound protective and regenerative effects on the body. Other than inducing deep ketosis as an energy source, stem cell activation, reduced inflammation, and improved insulin sensitivity, one significant process that gets triggered is autophagy, or "cellular cleaning," which is a cellular mechanism where cells break down and recycle their own components, including damaged organelles and proteins. Additionally, studies have shown that fasting can promote stem cell regeneration, particularly in the immune system, where prolonged fasting has been observed to trigger stem cell-based regeneration of new immune cells, essentially "resetting" the immune system.

Maximizing Nutrients: The FMD protocol prescribes consuming 1100–1200 calories on Day 1, while Days 2 to 5 require 700–800 calories within very specific macronutrient ranges. Protein is kept under 20 grams to help reduce IGF-1 and trigger autophagy. The diet emphasizes a variety of nutrient-dense foods that are also low in calories.

Protein Restriction: Protein restriction, particularly of the amino acid methionine—which is especially abundant in red meat, fish, and egg whites—promotes autophagy through multiple mechanisms. Low protein intake reduces amino acid availability, signaling cells to break down existing proteins for necessary amino acids. It also lowers insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) levels, which normally suppress autophagy. Additionally, like calorie restriction, low protein intake inhibits mTOR, further promoting autophagy. These combined effects trigger the cell's self-cleaning process. Don't worry though, after a FMD cycle, the body enters a regenerative phase that can promote muscle regrowth and repair, potentially leading to improved muscle regeneration.

Resilience Against Disease: Research on the fasting-mimicking diet has shown that it can slow down aging and help prevent metabolic syndrome. Measuring the biological age of participants before and after cycles of FMD has revealed that three five-day fasts per year can reduce biological age by 2.5 years relative to chronological age. Additionally, it can reverse or prevent age-related chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, and cancer.

5-Day Cycle: The FMD is typically limited to five days per cycle for the maximum benefits. Exceeding the five-day duration will cause the body to enter a thrifty state, leading to a metabolic slowdown, increased cortisol levels, muscle loss, and greater efficiency at storing fat. The FMD can be done once a month for those dealing with diabetes and multiple metabolic disorders. For individuals who are pre-diabetic, once every three months is sufficient. For athletes and generally healthy individuals, doing the FMD once every six months can be beneficial.

This protocol is the closest thing we have to "nutritional medicine." The FMD also acts like a boot camp for nutrition education, helping you reset your metabolism, learn the importance of nutrient balance, and adopt healthier habits.

Health Benefits of FMD

1. Slowing Down Aging: By promoting cellular repair and regeneration.
2. Preventing Metabolic Syndrome: Improve insulin sensitivity and reduce risk factors associated with metabolic syndrome.
3. Cardiovascular Health: Improve cardiovascular health by lowering blood pressure, reducing cholesterol levels, and improving overall heart function.
4. Diabetes Management: Improves insulin sensitivity and reduces inflammation, helping to prevent and manage diabetes.
5. Neurodegenerative Diseases: Reduces the risk of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's by lowering oxidative stress and inflammation.
6. Cancer Prevention and Therapy: Slows the growth of cancer cells and enhances the effects of traditional cancer treatments.
7. Cellular Regeneration: Promotes autophagy (the body's way of cleaning out damaged cells) and stem cell-based regeneration, leading to cellular rejuvenation.
8. Metabolic Health: Improves markers such as blood glucose, blood pressure, and cholesterol, enhancing overall metabolic health.
9. Weight Loss: Often results in the reduction of excess fat, particularly abdominal (visceral) fat, contributing to weight loss.
10. Longevity: Animal studies suggest that FMD has potential life-extending effects, likely due to its impact on metabolic and cellular processes.
11. Inflammation Reduction: Lowers various inflammatory markers, contributing to reduced inflammation in the body.
12. Cognitive Function: FMD has neuroprotective effects, improving cognitive function and potentially protecting against cognitive decline.
13. Mindfulness: Smaller portions encourage slowing down and appreciating every bite of food. Extreme moderation in consumption cultivates gratitude and a healthier relationship with whole, nourishing foods.

Further Reading

Dr. Valter Longo's concepts and research findings on the FMD are detailed in his book, The Longevity Diet.

Author's Anecdote

I designed my plan using Dr. Longo's guidelines, adhering to strict calorie limits, food choices, and macronutrient ratios. I also accounted for insulin and protein factors to maximise autophagy. For accuracy, the calculations were made down to 0.1 grams using the USDA database. On my first attempt with the FMD protocol, surprisingly, I did not feel hungry at all during the entire duration, however, I did experience fatigue during the first two days of transition. By the third day, I had incredible energy and mental sharpness. Along with lower blood pressure, my health vitals were my personal best: a low resting heart rate of 38 BPM and high HRV at 81 ms. Upon completion of the cycle, I notably lost body fat (partly water weight) and achieved incredible vascularity. After completing it, I quickly regained the lost weight, some of which was additional muscle. I plan to continue this protocol 2–3 times each year.

Buy the SSF FMD Plan

Kitchen FundamentalsCopy Link

Why Cook?

Cooking is mandatory for a healthy lifestyle. Fast food and pre-cooked packages are of low quality, lacking nutrients and generally high in sugar, salt, and fats. They have replaced the time, effort, and skill required for cooking. Restaurants, while can be healthier in very select places, are expensive and often contain more salt and fat than needed. Going to a restaurant also requires time and effort.

The trade-off for grocery shopping, preparation, and cooking is that your diet, wallet, and health will buy you additional years of enjoyable living.

Pound for pound, buying food in bulk from places such as local markets, Costco, Amazon, and Trader Joe's is significantly cheaper than fast food in the long run. Not only are meal prepping and cooking useful and gratifying skills, they also allow you to make leftovers to save time, give yourself convenience by being at home, and make it easier to track calories. Refer to the recipes for various cooking ideas.

Food tastes so much better after exertion. Nassim Nicholas Taleb, Antifragile

By creating your own meals from whole foods, most of your fresh foods and cooked leftovers would end up being stocked in the fridge and freezer, with less stored in the pantry.

On a Budget

Buying and cooking whole foods can be cheaper than McDonald's. Here are some tips:

• Shop: No Frills, Costco, Trader Joe's, ethnic markets. Cost per gram is lower when food is purchased at a higher volume.
• Garden: Planting herbs, spices, vegetables, berries, and fruits can return amazing yields.
• Spices: Refill reusable spice containers with spices from bulk (e.g., Amazon, Costco, Bulk Barn).
• Animals: Large, whole packages of cuts that are inexpensive in your region. Choices include organ meat, game meat, beef, pork, poultry, or fish. Cut into portions and freeze in bags or containers. Initially expensive, but covers over several meals. Buying frozen in bulk is definitely an option.
• Vegetables: Frozen vegetables, in-season vegetables.
• Fruit: Frozen berries, in-season fruit.
• Carbohydrates: Potatoes, whole grains such as oats, barley, millet, rye, and brown rice.
• Protein: Eggs, whey/pea protein.
• Fats: Eggs, extra virgin olive oil, camelina oil, high-oleic sunflower/safflower oil, canola oil.

Cooking Essentials

Cutting Board

Bamboo cutting boards are great at resisting moisture so that bacteria doesn't form. It's also strong enough to take on the sharpest of knives.

Chef's Knife

One high quality chef's knife is all you need for all of your chopping. There will be a lot of chopping.

Utensils

Essential utensils such as measuring cups and spoons help ensure your ingredients will fit the recipe at hand. Wooden spoons don't scratch up your cookware and don't conduct heat.

Cookware

In most cases, one large cast iron and a pressure cooker, good pot, or Dutch oven may be all that you need for the coming decades. Whatever you choose, make sure it works well with your stovetop and kitchen space.

Cooktop

You likely already have an electric or gas stovetop, so you don't really need an induction oven. What's great about an induction oven is that it heats quickly, is easy to clean, and takes up little space. Note that induction ovens only work with cookware that contains iron such as cast iron, Dutch ovens, or some stainless steel.

Other Cooking Items

Very useful and convenient products include containers, mixing bowls, and a quality food scale, among others, which can help your food prepping needs.

Shop Kitchenware

The Power of Spices

The spice must flow. Frank Herbert, Dune

Spices are what can help guide people away from the typical Western diet—characterized by sweet, salty, fried, and doughy flavours—and back to a healthy balance of delicious, rich, and complex tastes: savoury.

The more intact the spice, the better, as this gives you full control over the choices and proportions to create anything from simple to complex flavours, and forming the base for homemade sauces and seasonings. Many commercial sauces and dressings are high in sugar, calories, and often contain low-quality oils. By replacing these with alternatives, you can enhance the palatability of meals using low-calorie, antioxidant-rich spices and herbs, as well as salt, lemon juice, lime juice, and vinegar.

For example, seasoning sautéed broccoli with paprika, black pepper, and a pinch of salt can significantly transform its flavor. Adding healthy fats such as extra virgin olive oil can further improve its palatability while also improving nutrient absorption.

Some common spices and herbs used in various cuisines:

Western Dishes

• Herbs: Oregano, basil, thyme, sage, rosemary, parsley, dill, tarragon, marjoram, chives
• Spices: Salt, black pepper, paprika, cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, bay leaf
• Powders: Onion powder, garlic powder, mustard powder

Eastern Dishes

• General: Curry powder, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg
• Indian/South Asian: Turmeric, cumin, coriander, cardamom, cloves, fenugreek, asafoetida (hing)
• East Asian: Star anise, five-spice powder, Sichuan peppercorn, white pepper
• Middle Eastern: Za'atar, sumac, saffron

Heat ("Spiciness")

• Chili-based: Cayenne, chili powder, red pepper flakes, paprika (hot varieties)
• Other sources: Black pepper, white pepper, ginger, horseradish, wasabi, mustard

Flavouring

• Aromatic Blends: Garam masala (Indian), Herbes de Provence (French), Italian seasoning, Chinese five-spice powder, Ras el hanout (North African), Berbere (Ethiopian), Za’atar (Middle Eastern), Advieh (Persian), Cajun Seasoning (American - Louisiana), Jerk Seasoning (Jamaican)
• Umami Enhancers: Nutritional yeast, dried mushroom powder, seaweed (nori, kombu), miso powder
• Sweet Spices: Cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, cardamom, vanilla

Make a Meal

Make all kinds of stir-fries, soups, and stews with this simple cooking method.

Cooking can be a dauting task for most people, especially when making healthy meals. Fortunately, there is an easy way to create a wide variety of soup, stew, or stir-fry dishes using only four components:

1. The Base
2. The Protein
3. The Stock
4. The Bulk

All components are cooked on the stove using pots and pans, first separately and then combined. This method forms the basis of many dishes in the SSF Recipes.

The preparation and cooking time is roughly equivalent to a round trip to a sit-down restaurant.

Benefits of ExerciseCopy Link

Eating alone will not make a man well; he must also take exercise. Hippocrates (460–377 BC)

Sitting for prolonged, uninterrupted periods (i.e., over one hour) significantly increases your risk of developing heart disease, cancer, and type 2 diabetes.

Engineering Exercise

Humans have transitioned from scaling up rocky hills to walking on hilly trails and eventually climbing stairs, with each stage still providing exercise benefits. In our modern world, however, we now use escalators and elevators, which provide minimal physical activity. We've shifted from being farmers, herders, and laborers to becoming desk-bound workers. We've entered an era of comfort and convenience where our environment is engineered to minimize movement and maximize comfort: sprawling road networks and free shipping instead of busy bike lanes and walking trails. This is why it's so strange to engineer exercise back into our lives through artificial constructs like the gym.

Why would anyone run when they didn't have to? Legendary 70-year-old barefoot runner of the Tarahumara Native American tribe, who never trained for marathons. This highlights the modern disconnect from running as a necessity. Excerpt from Exercised by Daniel E. Lieberman

Our brain craves comfort, but our bodies were not designed for comfort.

What is Exercise?: Exercise means movement. Exercise can mean a walk in the park, tending the garden, cooking a meal, dancing at a club, a high-intensity sprint, or squatting with a heavy barbell. Aside from the fact that our bodies are designed to walk, run, jump, climb, carry, crawl, and lift, the intermittent stress from exercise significantly contributes to our overall healthspan and happiness.

Decline of Movement: Exercise activates mechanisms that repair and enhance our body. However, we have quickly replaced common activities like hiking, biking to work, walking with friends, and preparing our own meals with prolonged, uninterrupted sitting: in cars, at desks, in front of the TV or computer, or at restaurants. At least we stand when we take the elevator. I jest, though opting for the stairs would be much better for us, even though most of us understandably eschew that option.

Exercise and Evolution: It's not entirely our fault. Evolutionarily, we're wired to conserve energy rather than spend it. However, our bodies are designed for movement because in the past, we only moved when we had to—out of necessity. Hunting for food, gathering plants, climbing for honey, digging for tubers, and carrying jugs of water were all rooted in necessity. We are not naturally motivated to exercise but motivated to seek food when we're hungry or water when we're thirsty. Modern conveniences, such as grocery stores and restaurants, have eliminated the need for physical effort. In today's technologically advanced society of comforts, the need for movement has largely disappeared. Instead of being driven by necessity, we now face the challenge of discipline. Hopefully, a growing awareness of the immense benefits of exercise will become the driving motivation, along with our capability to make it fun.

Recognize that exercise is the free wonder drug we voluntarily swallow for at least 20–30 minutes, overriding millennia of biological energy conservation through pure will. Movement is medicine.

Mental and Physical Benefits

Exercise has numerous mental and physical benefits.

Fountain of Youth: Exercise enhances overall well-being and quality of life. It helps preserve youthfulness through autophagy ("cellular cleaning"), promotes regeneration and resilience by stimulating the release of stem cells from our bone marrow, supporting longevity, and improves physical performance, balance, and mobility.

Prevents Disease: Exercise reduces the risk of morbidity (illness) and mortality (death) through several mechanisms. It lowers LDL (“bad”) cholesterol and triglycerides while raising HDL (“good”) cholesterol, which improves overall cardiovascular health. Exercise also enhances insulin sensitivity, reduces blood pressure, and decreases inflammation, all of which lower the risk of chronic diseases and early death. Additionally, it improves vascular function, supporting healthier blood flow and arterial integrity.

Mental Strength: These physical benefits contribute to improved mental health: confidence, resilience, better sleep quality, reduced stress, increased energy levels, and a stronger immune system. Regular physical activity can also enhance neurogenesis, which improves learning, memory, and overall mental health.

Staying Lean: Exercise also accelerates metabolism by burning body fat (adipose tissue) and lowering blood sugar (glucose) levels. Consistent exercise is one of the most effective ways to help prevent weight gain.

The mechanisms activated by exercise function like a miracle drug. If all the benefits of exercise could be crammed into a pill, it would be the bestselling drug of all time.

People don't die of old age, they die of neglect and inactivity. Jack LaLanne

Did you know?

Exercise increases glucose uptake for energy rather than storage, with activated muscles soaking up glucose like a sponge. This process improves insulin sensitivity and reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes. This is why walking after a meal is often recommended.

Mental Benefits	Physical Benefits	Result
More energy	Less lethargy
Improved fortitude	Improved resilience
Better sleep	Better strength, stamina, and endurance
Lower stress, anxiety, and depression	Slows down biological aging
Improved sharpness and alertness	Improved performance
Boosted motivation and focus	Enhanced metabolic rate and calorie efficiency
Increased testosterone	Improved libido and sexual ability
Better tolerance to cortisol (stress hormone)	Stronger immune system, reduced cholesterol, and improved heart health
Releases irisin, a fat-burning hormone	Weight reduction and management
Enhanced neurogenesis (learning and memory)	Improved mobility
Improved affirmation and confidence	Improved aesthetics
Enhanced glucose absorption	Prevention of type 2 diabetes
Prevention or slowing of dementia	Stem cell release supporting tissue regeneration

Author's Anecdote

The benefits of exercise can be clearly demonstrated by wearing a continuous glucose monitor (CGM). One striking example I experienced was after consuming a starchy dinner. I observed my glucose levels rise, only to dramatically plummet while I was mowing the lawn for 20 minutes. After I finished mowing, my glucose steadily rose again as my body shifted from using glucose for energy back to digesting the meal. This illustrates how muscles can lower glucose levels by increasing glucose uptake during exercise, and how a post-exercise rebound can occur when carbohydrates are still being digested and absorbed.

Training Goals

Specific Fitness Goals

There are many ways to improve your health and fitness. Choose a lifestyle or goal that you can enjoy and stick with at a comfortable level.

Here are some specific fitness goals:

• Health: Anaerobic training, aerobic training, high-intensity interval training (HIIT), and circuit training.
• Sports: Basketball, football, hockey, rugby, volleyball, etc.
• Power: Olympic lifting, sprinting, and plyometrics.
• Strength: Heavy weight training.
• Aesthetics: Hypertrophy-specific weight training.
• Endurance: Moderate-intensity cardiorespiratory training, interval training.
• Flexibility: Stretches, yoga, pilates.
• Mind-Body and Balance: Yoga, Tai Chi.

The reason I exercise is for the quality of life I enjoy. Kenneth H. Cooper

Training Methods

Training Type	Fitness Goal	Reps	Sets	Rest
🏋️‍♂️ Power Lifting	Strength	1–5	3–5	2'–5'
💪 Bodybuilding (Strength)	Hypertrophy (Myofibrillar)	4–8	3–4	1'–3'
💪 Bodybuilding (Aesthetics)	Hypertrophy (Sarcoplasmic)	8–15	4–5	0.5'–1.5'
🔥 HIIT	Cardiovascular Fitness	20–40 sec (work)	4–10 (intervals)	1:1–1:3 ratio (work:rest)
🏃‍♂️ Cardiovascular	Endurance	15+	2–4	0.5'–1.5'
Note: The ' marker denotes time in minutes.

Training Benefits

Training Goal	Repetition Range	Fitness Goal	Examples
🏋️‍♂️ Power	1–5	Strength, Explosiveness, Bone Health	Powerlifters, Strongmen, Olympic Weightlifters
💪 Hypertrophy (Muscle Building)	6–12	Muscle Growth, Strength, Aesthetics	Bodybuilders, Fitness Enthusiasts, Pro Athletes
🔥 HIIT	Varies (20–40 sec work)	Fat Loss, Cardiovascular Fitness, Efficiency	Sprinters, Athletes, Fitness Enthusiasts
🏃‍♂️ Muscular Endurance (Cross-Training)	12–20	Stamina, Muscular Endurance, Fat Loss	Athletes, Gymnasts, Military Training
🏃‍♂️ Cardiovascular (Aerobic)	Varies (Time-based)	Stamina, Fat Loss, Heart Health	Runners, Cyclists, Swimmers, Triathletes

Understanding Your Training Options

We're all familiar with terms like "cardio" or "aerobic exercise," but resistance training—whether through hypertrophy-focused workouts, strength training, bodyweight exercises (calisthenics), or weight lifting—is just as important. It's one of the most effective ways to build muscle, increase strength, and enhance overall body composition. Plus, resistance training is time-efficient, delivering impressive results with as little as three 30-minute sessions per week.

That said, while resistance training excels in building muscle and strength, it doesn't provide the same cardiovascular (heart) and pulmonary (lungs) benefits as aerobic exercise. For optimal health and performance, it's essential to balance your fitness routine by combining both resistance and cardiovascular training.

Author's Anecdote

For two decades, I've primarily focused on resistance training, typically in vigorous-intensity 30-minute sessions four times a week. This approach has helped me maintain a body composition and level of leanness that I am satisfied with. In recent times, however, I've started incorporating cycling (for commuting) and trail running (30 minutes, 4–5 times per week) into my routine. Adding cardio has significantly enhanced my overall mental and physical health, improved my mood and well-being, and helped me maintain an incredibly lean physique.

For Beginners

Disclaimer

If you are a beginner, check with your doctor first before attempting any new workouts.

With your doctor's clearance, before progressing to weight training or moderate to vigorous cardio, start with core bodyweight exercises and light to moderate cardio. This is so your body can adapt to the neurological and physiological changes.

Beginner bodyweight exercises include bodyweight squats, push-ups, planks, bridges, and assisted chin-ups. Light to moderate cardio exercises include incline walking, stairs, and jogging. Always aim to take at least 4,000 steps per day and strive to reach 10,000 steps daily.

It's Never Too Late

No matter your age, you begin at your own unique physical baseline. With consistent effort, you can make tremendous improvements within weeks and months.

Beginners often experience the fastest and most noticeable progress, however, sustaining it requires continuous, consistent effort with gradual increases over time.

For those approaching middle age, staying physically active becomes even more crucial. A common misconception is that we should become less active as we age. In reality, staying active becomes increasingly important as we grow older for overall health and longevity.

Don't Be a Hero

Be the tortoise, not the hare. If you go all out on day one, you're more likely to quit, burn-out, or get injured.

Starting off with a sprint is not realistic—mentally, physically, or psychologically—just as it's impossible to go from skinny to buff overnight or from obese to lean in a single week. Physiological adaptation takes time. It occurs through progressive recovery and proper nutrition after challenging your body and mind. Start slow by lifting lighter weights, walking, and doing shorter workouts, then gradually increase each over time. You'll be surprised by the progress and accomplishments that come with consistency as the weeks and months go by.

Make it Fun!

Exercise is voluntary, and for beginners especially, the achiness, sweatiness, and discomfort can make it difficult to start or maintain—despite the health benefits. However, with persistence, regular physical activity can trigger the release of feel-good chemicals like dopamine and serotonin, along with the runner's high of endorphins and endocannabinoids. Additionally, changing the environment can help make exercise enjoyable: through playful competition or sports, running with a friend or two, joining social groups, learning how to dance to Thriller, combining exercise with TV, music, podcasts, or audiobooks, or enjoying a meditative hike or run through nature.

Did you know?

Ernestine Shepherd of Baltimore, Maryland, started training at age 71 and became a competitive bodybuilder at 75. Similarly, New Yorker Claxton, who turned 70, began calisthenics at 40 and has the physique of a 30-year-old.

Author's Anecdote

Exercise is an uncomfortable experience for a lot of us, especially when we make it as intense as possible. The key is to make exercise a routine, and an enjoyable one. Play music, listen to a podcast, treat it as a meditative experience. I immensely enjoy being out in nature by doing trail running at a nearby park. Instead of HIIT, I have fun with the Fartlek ("speed play") protocol where I vary walking and running speeds at my own pace. Once you start the exercise, you'll be more likely to push through it. The aftereffects of exercise are immensely rewarding when the dopamine, norepinephrine, endorphins, and serotonin kick in.

Further Reading

For more examples of inspiring individuals on their fitness journeys and transformations, check out /r/progresspics.

We don't have to wait for a magic potion. We already have a proven treatment that profoundly protects our health: exercise. Dr. Anthony L. Komaroff

Strength and CardioCopy Link

Recommendation

Do both. Strength (anaerobic) and cardio (aerobic) provide different benefits. 💪 Strength training will build muscle, increase strength, improve power, boost metabolism, and promotes growth factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which supports neurogenesis and brain health. ❤️ Cardio training will enhance cardiovascular (heart) health, increase endurance, burn fat, improve mood, and support immune function. Heart rate Zone 2 (cardio/aerobic) training will burn fatty adipose tissue and improve your mitochondrial functioning, while Zone 4–5 (strength/anaerobic) training, in particular, high-intensity interval training (HIIT), will utilize carbohydrates via glucose, improve your VO₂ max, and lower your resting heart rate. Aim for at least 2.5 hours (150 minutes) of strength training and 2.5 hours of cardio each week for optimal benefits. Beyond 5 hours (300 minutes) per type, the benefits tend to diminish.

🏃‍♂️ Aerobic ("with oxygen") exercises include running, cycling, swimming, rowing, and brisk walking. These are generally considered moderate intensity (50–70% maximum heart rate), though they can become vigorous if performed at higher speeds or intensity (e.g., sprinting, Fartlek protocol).

🏋️‍♂️ Anaerobic ("without oxygen") exercises include weight lifting with barbells, dumbbells, kettlebells, and bodyweight resistance training, sprinting, high-intensity interval training (HIIT), and plyometrics. These are generally considered vigorous intensity (70–85% maximum heart rate), though the intensity can vary depending on the weight lifted, rest periods, and workout structure.

🤾‍♂️ Sports often combine both elements of aerobic and anaerobic training, such as basketball, soccer, hockey, and tennis.

Burning Fat and Building Muscle: While aerobic exercise is excellent for zone 2 fat burning, improving endurance, mitochondrial function, and oxygen consumption (VO² max), it is not as efficient as anaerobic exercise for burning fat or building muscle. For example, the physiques of Olympic athletes highlight this difference. Sprinters, who focus on anaerobic training, typically appear leaner and more muscular than marathon runners, despite spending less overall time exercising. Note, however, that exercise is more effective at preventing weight gain than at promoting weight loss, which is something diet is better suited to achieve.

Best Approach: Incorporating both anaerobic and aerobic exercise into your weekly routine—either on alternating days or by combining them—enhances muscular endurance and heart health.

Tip

If you find running boring, try trail running for a more engaging experience and the added benefit of being surrounded by nature. Cardio on a treadmill, rowing machine, or elliptical in front of the TV can be engaging. Fitness apps in virtual reality with a VR headset is becoming increasingly common. Commuting to work by bike is also an excellent way to motivate yourself to include cardiovascular exercise in your routine. If lifting weights feels monotonous, try bodyweight exercises (calisthenics), which can be equally effective for building strength and muscle.

Make exercise necessary and fun. Do mostly cardio, but also some weights. Some is better than none. Keep it up as you age. Daniel E. Lieberman, Exercised

Anaerobic Training

Anaerobic ("without oxygen") training includes various high-intensity activities that primarily rely on the body's anaerobic energy systems. This category encompasses resistance training, weightlifting, gymnastics, bodyweight exercises (such as calisthenics), sprints, high-intensity interval training (HIIT), and plyometrics. These types of training typically target the higher heart rate zones, specifically Zones 4 and 5, which are associated with higher intensity efforts where anaerobic metabolism predominates.

Weight Training

While all kinds of physical activity provide health benefits, weight (strength) training is one of the most effective ways of increasing metabolism for fat loss. It is also one of the most effective ways to strengthen your muscles and bones to protect your joints, and to also decrease the risk of disease and injury.

In addition to bodyweight-only exercises, weight training may also include – but is not limited to – the following equipment:

• Barbells
• Cable machines
• Dumbbells
• Gymnastic rings
• Kettlebells
• Leverage machines
• Pull-up bar
• Resistance bands
• Tires, sandbags, jugs of water, etc.

Olympic Weightlifting

Other than the Big Six Lifts, Olympic lifts such as the power clean and jerk, and the snatch are fantastic full body exercises, although it requires practice and proper technique to perform correctly.

Gymnastics and Bodyweight Training

As an alternative or supplement to weight training, bodyweight (calisthenic) exercises can be performed for excellent results.

Tip

Many bodyweight exercises do not require a gym. Exercises can be performed with little to no equipment.

Bodyweight exercises without equipment include push-ups, handstand push-ups, pistol squats, and planks. With gymnastic rings, simple to advanced chin-ups, rows, push-ups, and dips can be performed.

The difficulty level of each exercise can be modified by using leverage. For example, going from a standard push-up to a more challenging diamond push-up.

Further Reading

Reddit's /r/bodyweightfitness has tons of resources on bodyweight fitness.

Sprints, HIIT, and Plyometrics

Not for Beginners

High-intensity cardiovascular training is not recommended for beginners. Focus first on building a solid base of medium-intensity cardio and foundational strength training before progressing to high-intensity workouts.

Unique Benefits: Sprints, high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and plyometrics are anaerobic (heart rate zones 4–5) activities similar to weight training, except it strongly relies on performance goals such as speed, agility, power, and coordination, as well as improving VO² max and cardiovascular health.

Scheduling it in: Sprints, HIIT, and plyometrics are high-intensity workouts, so combining them with weight training on the same day is generally not recommended due to the risk of injury or overtraining. Instead, these workouts can be performed during moderate-intensity cardio sessions or on rest days if your body is adapted to higher levels of training. If you wish to include sprinting alongside weight training, consider short, high-intensity interval sessions like Tabata (20 seconds of intense effort followed by 10 seconds of rest for 4 minutes) or a single 30-second sprint once or twice a week, such as during a run.

Did you know?

You could have an intense workout in only 4 minutes by performing burpees with the Tabata Method.

Aerobic Training

Aerobic ("with oxygen") training refers to all forms of cardiovascular activity, typically at medium intensity, that involve sustained movement. Classic examples include walking, running, hiking, cycling, and swimming.

Vital Benefits: Aerobic training primarily targets heart rate zones 2 and 3, which are optimal for improving cardiovascular endurance, enhancing fat metabolism (fat burning), and boosting mitochondrial function (energy production in cells). It also enhances immune resilience by temporarily increasing the circulation of immune cells, such as natural killer (NK) cells and T cells, particularly after moderate to vigorous aerobic activity. These benefits are sustained with regular training.

Finding Balance: Cardiorespiratory training supports heart health and overall fitness. However, prolonged medium-intensity activity (e.g., marathon training) can increase cortisol levels, which may contribute to muscle breakdown over time. To preserve muscle, medium-intensity cardiovascular sessions are typically best kept to around 30 minutes, as this helps minimize cortisol release. Interestingly, high-intensity interval training (HIIT) preserves muscle mass despite raising cortisol levels. Ultimately, it's about finding the right balance.

If you plan to combine cardio with strength training on the same day, it's crucial to ensure quality nutrition and sleep to regulate cortisol levels and reduce the risks of overtraining or injury.

Beginners: While beginners should initially engage in light to moderate cardio (heart rate zones 1 and 2) to adapt to the neurological and physical demands, greater cardioprotective benefits are achieved from moderate to vigorous cardio (heart rate zones 3 and 4).

Did you know?

Low-intensity steady-state cardio (LISS), such as inclined walking on a treadmill, is an effective way to burn excess calories while preserving muscle mass during a cut. This is because lower intensity training, typically in heart rate zone 2, targets a higher percentage of the body's fat stores for fuel.

Individual Cardio Training

Common individual cardiorespiratory exercises include:

• Cycling
• Dancing
• Elliptical
• Hiking
• Jump Rope
• Rowing
• Road Running
• Rucking
• Sprints
• Stairs
• Stationary Bike
• Swimming
• Trail Running
• Treadmill
• Walking
• Wall Climbing

Group Cardio Training

Another popular type of fitness activity is group classes, which offer a social environment. Examples include:

• Boot Camp
• Dance
• Martial Arts
• Pilates
• Spinning
• Tai Chi
• Yoga
• Zumba

Sports

Sports are one of the more fun, social, and engaging activities where many combine aerobic and anaerobic aspects. Some examples include:

• Badminton
• Basketball
• Baseball
• Boxing
• Cricket
• Cycling
• Football
• Hockey
• Rugby
• Soccer
• Swimming
• Skateboarding
• Skiing/Snowboarding
• Surfing
• Tennis
• Ultimate Frisbee
• Volleyball
• Wrestling

PhysiquesCopy Link

Body Appearance

Apart from genetics and bone structure, your body shape is largely determined by your leanness—specifically, the amount of muscle mass and subcutaneous fat you carry.

The type of exercise, duration, sets, repetitions, and weight resistance you perform over time determine your performance outcomes—and these results ultimately shape you physically. Achieving these milestones also requires proper sleep and quality nutrition.

Physiques of Elite Athletes

Observe how the type of training affects the body composition of elite athletes and Olympians. Remember, while they train hard, they also follow a strict diet regimen.

Toning

"Toning" is simply the end result from increased muscle mass and reduced body fat.

Six Pack Abs

Six-pack abs typically become visible around 10% body fat for men and 20% for women, with greater definition at even lower percentages.

Achieving a lower body fat percentage requires a strict calorie deficit combined with a quality diet.

The prominence of your abdominal muscles is influenced by both muscle development and genetics.

Female Physiques

Will women become big and bulky from lifting weights? Women are extremely unlikely to get big and bulky from strength training because they produce very little testosterone, which is an important hormone for muscle growth.

Rather, lifting weights are more likely to help women slim down by boosting metabolism, leading to the coveted "toned" appearance when combined with proper nutrition.

Elite natural lifters such as Jennifer Nicole Lee, Jamie Eason, and Marzia Prince are slender, lean, and "toned."

The lean yet big and bulky women use steroids.

Heart Rate ZonesCopy Link

Note

Heart rate zones are mainly used for cardiovascular training, as they directly measure cardiovascular intensity and effort. These zones are typically defined as percentages (%) of your maximum heart rate (MHR) in beats per minute (BPM).

Measuring Heart Rate Zones

Measuring your heart rate zone can be done through various methods and devices, including:

• Chest strap heart rate monitors (most accurate)
• Wearable devices such as Apple Watch, Garmin, or Fitbit
• Built-in monitors on some gym equipment, such as treadmills, stationary bikes, etc. (least accurate)

The talk test—i.e., how well you can talk during physical exertion—is a very reliable way to determine which heart rate zone you're in.

Benefits of Exercising in Heart Rate Zones

When you exercise, your muscles need more oxygen and nutrients to keep up with the increased activity. To meet this demand, your heart pumps faster, increasing your heart rate. This delivers more oxygen-rich blood to your muscles, supporting their higher energy needs.

As a result, you burn more calories, body fat, and muscle glycogen stores. Additionally, regular exercise improves cardiovascular health, boosts mood, enhances endurance, strengthens muscles, and supports overall physical and mental well-being.

Efficient Fat Burning

Exercising in Zone 2 is particularly effective for fat burning. At this intensity, the body primarily uses fat as a fuel source, which can help with weight loss and body composition improvement.

Enhanced Mitochondrial Function

Mitochondria are organelles, often referred to as the powerhouses of the cells. They produce energy from nutrients and regulate metabolism. Training in Zone 2 stimulates the production of more mitochondria, enhancing endurance and overall energy levels. Zone 2 also optimizes mitochondrial function, enabling the body to generate more energy with less oxygen. This improved efficiency, in turn, boosts insulin sensitivity and reduces mitochondrial damage by lowering oxidative stress—key factors for longevity and overall health.

Improved Cardiovascular Health

Regularly training in heart rate zones, especially in the primary aerobic zone, Zone 2 and to a lesser extent Zone 3, can significantly enhance cardiovascular health. This includes improving heart and lung function, lowering blood pressure, and reducing the risk of heart disease.

Zone 3, however is considered a "gray zone", as it does not trigger significant adaptive responses. It's less efficient than either Zone 2 (for building endurance) or Zones 4–5 (for high-intensity benefits).

Zones 1 and 2 are considered moderate intensity activities, while Zones 3 and 4 are considered vigorous intensity activities.

Ideally, when training your aerobic base, spend about 80% of your time in Zone 2.

Increased Performance and Endurance

Higher intensity zones, Zone 4 and Zone 5 improve the body's ability to handle lactic acid, thereby increasing endurance and performance. This is particularly beneficial for athletes who need to sustain high levels of performance over extended periods.

Zones 4 and 5 will push your cardiovascular and respiratory systems to work near their capacity, which stimulates adaptations that improve your body's ability to uptake and use oxygen efficiently. This increase in VO₂ max is crucial for enhancing overall aerobic fitness, and which leads to a lower resting heart rate. A lower resting heart rate is an indicator of improved cardiovascular fitness and a healthier heart.

Recommendation

For optimal performance, health, and fitness, aim for an 80/20 split between Zones 1–2 and Zones 4–5 in your exercise routine. For example, over the course of the week, for every 40 minutes spent in Zone 4, do 160 minutes in Zone 2.

Weekly Recommendations

• Zone 1: 60–120 minutes (1–2 hours) per week
• Zone 2: 150–300 minutes (2.5–5 hours) per week
• Zone 3: 30–60 minutes per week
• Zone 4: 20–40 minutes per week
• Zone 5: 10–20 minutes per week

Formula

Maximum Heart Rate (MHR): 220 - Age

Example: If your age is 25, then 220 - 25 = 195 is your MHR

Heart Rate Zone Table

Calculate Your Heart Rate Zones*

Age:
RHR: (Optional)
Calculate BPM

Zone	Difficulty	Purpose	Benefits	Activity
Zone 1: 50–60% of MHR	Very easy, can maintain a full conversation without any difficulty	Recovery and warm-up	Improves overall health and helps the body to recover after intense workouts	Walking
Zone 2: 60–70% of MHR	Easy, breathing slightly harder but still able to speak in complete sentences	Fat burning, aerobic base building, enhancing mitochondrial function and efficiency	Enhances endurance, helps in fat burning, and improves cardiovascular efficiency	Brisk walking, light jogging, comfortable cycling, moderate swimming
Zone 3: 70–80% of MHR	Moderate, conversation is possible but requires noticeable effort, shorter phrases preferred	Aerobic endurance	Improves cardiovascular fitness and increases aerobic capacity	Steady jogging, moderate cycling, fast swimming
Zone 4: 80–90% of MHR	Hard, breathing heavily, conversation is very difficult, only a few words at a time	Anaerobic endurance	Increases maximum performance capacity and improves lactate threshold	Running, fast cycling, swimming sprints
Zone 5: 90–100% of MHR	Very hard, maximum effort, conversation is impossible, focus entirely on breathing	Peak performance, VO2 max	Builds speed and power, and increases the body's ability to handle high-intensity efforts	Sprinting, high-intensity interval training (HIIT)

* Note: This table is designed for the average person with a resting heart rate (RHR) of 60–80 BPM. A lower RHR indicates a larger heart rate reserve (HRR) and better cardiovascular fitness, and so results in lower BPM values within the heart rate zones.